Psychopathology

• Define Deviation From Social Norms as an explanation for abnormality


  Deviation From Social Norms proposed that behaviour is abnormal if it is very different to the accepted behaviour produced by other members of the same society. This behaviour goes against the unwritten rules.
• What is an example of behaviour that Deviates From Social Norms?

  An example is Antisocial Personality Disorder where a characteristic is 'failure to conform to lawful or normative ethical behaviour'. people may make a social judgement that someone with APD is abnormal.
• What is a problem with Deviation From Social Norms as an explanation for abnormality?


  A problem is that this definition is subjective and can lead to human rights abuse if used (abused) as an instrument of social control. An example of this is Nymphomania (women being sexually attracted to working class men) which was once classed as abnormal. This also highlights the lack of temporal validity of this definition.
• What is a strength with Deviation From Social Norms as an explanation for abnormality?


  A strength with this definition is that it makes it easy to distinguish clear abnormalities as we can distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours, and once they are identified they can then be treated if necessary.
• Define Failure To Function Adequately as an explanation for abnormality


  Failure To Function Adequately defines abnormality as the inability to deal with the demands of everyday life. Rosenhan + Seligman suggested signs that could be used to determine is someone is not coping: Maladaptive, irrational or dangerous behaviour; behaviour that causes personal distress and behaviour that causes distress to others.
• What is an example of Failing To Function Adequately?


  Someone with depression may struggle to go to work, or communicate with family and friends. This would be considered abnormal as they aren't coping with the demands of everyday living, and observing this causes friends and family distress.
• What is a problem with Failure To Function Adequately as an explanation for abnormality?


  A limitation of this definition is that some people may appear to be functions normally, but actually be very disturbed. For example, Harold Shipman killed many people but appeared to be functioning well and was seen as an upstanding member of the community.
• What is a strength with Failure To Function Adequately as an explanation for abnormality?


  A strength of this definition is that it does recognise that the individual experience of the patient is important. So perhaps this may be a better way to define abnormality than other definitions.
• Define Statistical Infrequency as an explanation for abnormality


  Statistical Infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour or characteristics that are rare/uncommon/anomalous. This definition focuses on the quantity rather than quality of behaviour. Any behaviour which has a value of more than 2 standard deviations from the mean is considered abnormal, so the behaviour would would occupy the extreme ends of the normal distribution curve. This definition relies on the use of up to date statistics.
• What is an example of Statistical Infrequency?


  The average IQ is 100- only 2% of people have a score of below 70, and would be diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder.
• What is a problem with Statistical Infrequency as an explanation for abnormality?


  A limitation of this definition is that some statistically infrequent behaviour is desirable. For example, having a high IQ is not a negative thing so why should it be labelled as abnormal?
• What is a strength with Statistical Infrequency as an explanation for abnormality?


  A strength of the definition is that it is the most objective definition. Due to the mathematical nature of this definition, it means that it is clear what is defined as abnormal and what is not. There is no opinion involved which means there is no bias.
• Define Deviation From Ideal Mental Health as an explanation for abnormality


  Deviation From Ideal Mental Health was developed by Jahoda and defines abnormality as the failure to meet the 6 of Psychological Normality Criteria: Having an accurate perception of reality, capable of self-actualisation, capable to resist stress, having a positive view of oneself, showing independence and autonomy and environmental mastery. The more a person fails to meet the criteria, the more abnormal they are.
• What is an example of Deviation From Ideal Mental Health?


  Someone with depression would have a negative view of themself, and therefore be classed as abnormal.
• What is a problem with Deviation From Ideal Mental Health as an explanation for abnormality?


  One limitation is that the criteria is too demanding- most of us would be defined as abnormal using this definition as there are times when everyone experiences negativity like in times of personal trauma.
• What is a strength with Deviation From Ideal Mental Health as an explanation for abnormality?


  One strength is that it is by far the most positive and holistic of all the definitions of abnormality.
• What are 3 cognitive characteristics of phobias?


  Selective attention to the phobic stimulus (hard to look away)

  Irrational beliefs (everyone will hear my voice trembling...)

  Cognitive distortions (e.g. an Omphalophobic may see belly buttons as disgusting)
• What are the 3 emotional characteristics of phobias?


  Anxiety

  Fear

  Strong emotional response (disproportionate to the situation)
• What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of phobias?


  Panic (crying, running, screaming)

  Avoidance (not going places where the feared stimuli might be encouraged)

  Endurance (frozen still, remaining in the presence of feared stimuli)
• What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of depression?


  Poor concentration

  Negative thoughts (e.g. dwelling on the negative or recalling more negative events)

  Absolutist thinking ('black + white'- if something goes wrong, it is a disaster)
• What are the 3 emotional characteristics of depression?


  Low mood

  Increased feelings of anger

  Low self-esteem

  Anhedonia (no longer enjoying activities that used to be pleasurable)
• What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of depression?


  Aggression (towards self and/or others)

  Changed to energy/activity levels (e.g. withdrawal from work)

  Changes to eating behaviour (e.g. increase or decrease appetite)

  Changes to sleeping behaviour (e.g. insomnia or hypersomnia)
• What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD?


  Obsessive thoughts (persistent + intrusive thoughts e.g. of germs)

  Hypervigilance (increased awareness of source of obsession in new situations)

  Insights (awareness that thoughts/behaviour are irrational)
• What are the 4 emotional characteristics of OCD?


  Feeling anxiety (or reduction of anxiety after engaging in compulsions)

  Guilt (irrationally so, maybe at some small moral infraction)

  Disgust (directed towards oneself, or something external e.g. dirt)

  Low mood/self loathing
• What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of OCD?


  Compulsions (repetitive behaviour performed in order to alleviate anxiety)

  Avoidance (avoid situations that trigger anxiety e.g. touching things that other people have)
• What is the two-process model?


  The two-process model is a model that emphasises the tole of learning in phobias. Mowrer suggested that a combination of classical and operant conditioning can explain how phobias are learned and maintained
• How does Mowrer's two-process model explain classical conditioning role in the explanation of phobias?


  Mowrer suggested that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning- when a fear response is associated with a stimulus which should be neutral but becomes a conditioned stimulus due to it being paired with a threatening unconditioned stimulus. We can see this through the Little Albert case where LA became scared of a white rat (formerly a neutral stimulus, but when paired with the unconditioned stimulus of a loud noise, the rat became the conditioned stimulus with fear being the conditioned response.
• How does Mowrer's two-process model explain operant conditioning role in the explanation of phobias?


  Mowrer suggested that phobias are maintained through operant conditioning which suggests that the person actively avoids the phobic stimulus, and these avoidance behaviours are strengthened through the reduction in unpleasant feelings (negative reinforcement)
• (AO3) The two-process model Seligman 'biological preparedness'


  Seligman proposed that 'biological preparedness' takes place- were phobias have an evolutionary aspect (e.g. fear of snakes is fairly common and would have an adaptive advantage for our hunter-gatherer ancestors)
• (AO3) The two-process model Gilroy


  Gilroy found treating people with arachnophobia using systematic desensitisation was highly effective in both short and long term- as behavioural principles underpin this therapy, this provides evidence that learning is the basis of the phobia.
• What is stimulus generalisation?


  Stimulus generalisation is the tendency for similar stimuli to produce the same, but not necessarily identical, response
• Describe Flooding as a behavioural method of treating phobias


  Flooding is based on classical conditioning (extinction: breaking a cs-cr bond). It involves being bombarded by fear with no ability to escape (no avoidance) from the feared stimuli. Initially, the patient's anxiety rises, but it eventually reduces as anxiety cant remain high indefinitely. When the anxiety levels drop, the association between the stimulus and anxiety is broken (extinction). This can be done in vivo (life) or in vitro (imagined)
• (A03) Flooding Ethics


  There are ethical issues with flooding- for example, it has been criticised for putting patients under immense stress and anxiety , and for this reason, it is not recommended for use with children or the elderly.
• (AO3) Flooding Specific Phobias


  Flooding can work well for specific phobias such as heights, but it is less useful for other types of phobias such as the fear of water, or social phobias- these type of phobias may be better tackled by CBT which would also tackle a cognitive element.
• What is Systematic Desensitisation as an approach of treating phobias?


  Systematic Desensitisation is counter-conditioning. It involves relaxation training (like breathing exercises). It is based on the idea that fear and relaxation cannot co-exist (reciprocal inhibition). The patient and the therapist form an anxiety hierarchy (situations that might provoke anxiety from least to most frightening). There is gradual exposure to the feared stimulus, with relaxation at every stage. This stepped approach leads to eventual extinction, and the treatment is considered successful if the client can stay relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy.
• (AO3) Systematic Desensitisation- lower levels of subject attrition


  Systematic Desensitisation is perhaps more successful as it allows people to make progress in smaller steps, compared to Flooding, and in their own time-scale, rather than that required by the therapist, so the client is in control. Also, it is less traumatic, so there are lower levels of subject attrition- relaxation is more pleasant than fear.
• (AO3) Systematic Desensitisation- Gilroy (arachnophobia)


  Gilroy found that people who had Systematic Desensitisation to treat arachnophobia were less fearful than a control group at both 3 and 33 months- suggesting that it can be effective for treating phobias.
• (AO3) Systematic Desensitisation- People with learning difficulties


  Systematic Desensitisation is more suitable for people with learning difficulties than other treatments like CBT and Flooding, which may require complex thoughts or leave them feeling anxious.
• (AO3) Systematic Desensitisation- Time-Consuming/Controlled Clinical Setting


  Systematic Desensitisation is time-consuming, as gradual exposure may take many sessions and the progress in therapy may not generalise outside of the clinical setting when they don't have their therapist there.
• What is the cognitive explanation to explaining depression?


  Cognitive explanations suggest that some people are more vulnerable to depression because of the way that they think.