Phonology (LV and LVOT – but probably more LVOT focusing on changes to spelling etc.)
Covert prestige
The status speakers get from a social group when they choose not to adopt a standard dialect
Overt prestige
The status speakers get from using the most official and standardized form of language. E.g. using RP and standard English.
Mixed mode
Features of printed text mixed with features of spoken language
Political correctness
Words or phrases used to replace those that are deemed offensive
Obsolete
No longer having any use
Emoticons
The online means of showing facial expressions and gestures
Omission
The leaving out of a phoneme in a group of phonemes clustered together. This might mean the clipping of the final consonant in hangin'.
Eye-dialect
A way of spelling words that suggests a regional or social way of talking
Borrowing/loan words
Introduction of words from one language to another (can be Anglicised or remain similar to original spelling + pronunciation)
Clipping
A new word made from shortening an existing one
Initialism
A word made from initial letters each being pronounced
Acronym
A lexicalised word made up from the initial letters of a phrase sounded as a word
Eponym
Name of a person after whom something is named
Archaism
An old word or phrase no longer in general spoken or written language
Latinate lexis
Often polysyllabic and complex-sounding. Often begin with prefixes like 'in-', 'im-', 'ex-', 'de-', 'ad-', 'ab-', 'ob-' and often end with suffixes like '-ate', '-ous', '-or', '-us', '-um', '-ude', '-ia', '-ic', '-ile'
Amelioration
Changing the word's definition from negative to positive
Pejoration
Changing the word's meaning from positive to negative
Weakening
When words lose some of their original force or strength (e.g. 'soon' now means in the near future but used to mean immediately)
Narrowing
The word becomes more specific in its meaning (e.g. 'meat' originally meant food in general, but now applies to animal flesh)
Broadening
When the meaning of a word broadens, so that it retains its old meaning but takes on added meaning as well (e.g. 'holiday' meant 'holy day' a day of religious importance, but now means a day where one does not have to work)
Metaphor
Words often acquire new meanings because they begin to be used metaphorically (e.g. 'onion bag' refers to the net of a goal in football as well as a bag of onions)
Euphemism
A mild or inoffensive way of describing something distasteful or unpleasant (e.g. 'civilian casualties' are 'collateral damage')
Idiom
Sayings that don't make sense if you literally interpret them (e.g. 'it's raining cats and dogs')
Suffixes
Addition of bound morphemes to the end of the root word
Prefixes
The addition of a bound morpheme to the beginning of a root word
Affixation
The addition of bound morphemes to an existing word
Estuary English
Mixing ordinary London and south-eastern accents with RP seen as RP possible successor as the Standard English pronunciation
Conforms to Standard English grammatically and lexically but has distinct phonology
Includes glottal stops, l-vocalisation, and yod coalescence
Unlike Cockney, does not include h-dropping or th-fronting
Reasons for phonological change (Jean Aitchison)
Ease of Articulation: Saying words easier via abbreviation and Omission
Social Prestige + changes in Society: People move around more + mass communication= less regional variation
Infectious Disease
Convergence (Howard Giles Accommodation Theory)
Centres on pragmatics and how speakers adjust their speech behaviours to accommodate others showing need of approval
Divergence= opposite! When people diverge from others= make their accent stronger or to adopt exaggerated speech behaviours in order to distance themselves from other speaker= REINFORCE THEIR IDENTITY
Conversationalisation (Norman Fairclough)
Believes that there have been 'shifting boundaries' between written and spoken discourse practices
Rising prestige and status for spoken language
Many linguists see this informalisation and personalisation of language in today's language use and credit spoken language with driving changes in written mode
Varieties of English (Dennis Freeborn)
Incorrectness view: all accents are incorrect compared to Standard English and accent of RP
Ugliness view: some accents don't sound nice linked to stereotypes and negative social connotations
Impreciseness view: some accents are lazy and sloppy such as Estuary English where sounds are omitted and changed
Prescriptivism
The judgement based view that there is a right and wrong way to use the English language and anyone not conforming to the correct usage is 'wrong'
Descriptivism
An acceptance that language is always changing and evolving. Descriptivists seek to describe those changes, rather than applying value judgements to them.
Grice's Maxims
Quantity: Use an appropriate amount of detail
Quality: Speak the truth and do not knowingly mislead
Relevance: Keep what is being discussed relevant to the topic
Manner: Avoid vagueness and ambiguity
Power in Advertising
Synthetic personalisation: the creation of an artificial relationship between the producer and consumer
Members' resources: creating understanding through shared knowledge or the background of the reader
Language and Gender (Robin Lakoff)
Hedge: using phrases like "sort of", "kind of", "it seems like", and so on
Face Theory (Brown and Levinson)
Face: the public self-image that adults try to project to others
Positive Face: the need to feel liked and appreciated
Negative Face: the need not to feel imposed upon
Face Threatening Act (FTA): an act which challenges the face needs of a participant
Bald On-Record: "Your essay was rubbish"
Off-record: "It's a shame your essay wasn't better..."
Positive Politeness: "I really appreciate that you've put a lot of effort into this essay..."
Negative Politeness: "I'm sorry to have to ask you to do this essay again."
Types of Power
Instrumental Power: power used to maintain and enforce authority
Influential Power: the power used to influence people
Political Power: the power held by a politician or government
Personal Power: the power held by an individual due to their position
Social Group Power: the power held by people due to social variables, such as class, race etc.