Self-report methods

• What are the two types of self-report methods?

  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
• What are the two types of questionnaires?

  • Open-ended question
  • Close-ended question
• What are the two types of interviews?

  • Structured
  • Unstructured
• What are the key features of all questionnaires?

  • Self-report -> ppt answers questions in order to collect thoughts/attitudes/feelings/opinions
  • Used to:
  • Understand how ppl feel about certain issues, e.g. immigration
  • Measure psychometric properties, e.g. IQ
  • Conduct large-scale surveys to gage extent to which ppl are likely to vote, use sustainable energy, etc
• What are the key features of open questionnaires?

  • Offers freedom of response
  • Generally generate qualitative data, e.g. interview transcripts, emerging themes in conversation, complex things about a person that can't be reduced into numerical data (subjective)
• What are the key features of closed questionnaires?

  • Offers limited options for ppts' responses
  • Generate quantitative data, e.g. number of 'yes' responses across questionnaires, number of times ppts picked option 'B', total score calculated from scaled questions, etc
• What are the strengths of all questionnaires?

  • Quick, easy + convenient way of gathering data
  • Large samples reached via electronic survey tools
  • Large samples = reliable data + anomalous results averaged by overall data trends
• What are the weaknesses of all questionnaires?

  • People tend to under-report negative things + over-report positive things about themselves = ppts succumb to social desirability effect + validity of findings impaired
  • Questionnaires can under-utilise open questions = usefulness limited -> shows 'what' of behaviour instead of 'why'
• What are the strengths of open-ended question questionnaires?

  • Allows ppt to expand on answers they give = both researchers + ppt can clarify/explain/qualify answers = good explanatory power to each response
  • + general strengths of all questionnaires
• What are the weaknesses of open-ended question questionnaires?

  • Questions difficult to analyse since answers are subjective -> researchers have to interpret meaning + intention = potential lack of consistency + objectivity
  • Often lack reliability
  • + general weaknesses of all questionnaires
• What are the strengths of close-ended question questionnaires?

  • Quantitative data = easy to analyse + spot patterns -> can be presented both graphically + statistically = higher reliability (data can all be quantified in the same way)
  • Especially if there is a larger sample!!
  • + general strengths of all questionnaires
• What are the weaknesses of close-ended question questionnaires?

  • Level of detail/insight required to understand reasons + explanations sacrificed
  • Often lack validity -> may not measure what it intended to
  • + general weaknesses of all questionnaires
• What factors does a survey NEED to have?


  • Cover everything possible -> leaving things out could affect validity
  • Avoid misunderstanding -> skewed answers could result from misunderstood questions
  • Know what info you want -> be specific + don't get sidetracked
  • Make it easily accessible for ppts
  • You need:
  • Defined issues
  • Writing + editing skills
  • Clarity
  • Test subjects
  • Don't use leading Qs + have clearly distinct choices = answers more likely to be representative of ppts' true beliefs = higher validity
• What are the key features of all interviews?

  • Researcher asks diff. types of questions for ppt to answer
  • Usually done face to face but can be done on the phone, too
  • Researchers need training before conducting social interactions with ppts
  • Especially when topic of interview = socially sensitive!
• What are the key features of structured interviews?

  • Questions asked by researchers = predetermined + close-ended in set sequence
  • Produce quantitative data
  • Interviewer does not deviate from questions planned in advance
  • They may clarify meaning of question or offer prompt if ppt is confused, though
• What are the key features of unstructured interviews?

  • Questions asked by researchers = not predetermined
  • Researcher has initial aim, framework of what they want to investigate + some initial questions formulated in advance
  • They focus on themes + ask follow-up questions to encourage ppts to elaborate (specific to ppt + depend on what is said in interview)
  • Often used to conduct exploratory research + develop new lines of enquiry
• What are the strengths of all interviews?

  • Access people's thoughts + feelings in a way other research methods cannot
  • Greater insight into people's actions provided (compared to non-self-report methods)
• What are the weaknesses of all interviews?

  • Ppts may not be honest -> social desirability bias (outright lying, adjusting truth, lying by omission)
  • Ppts' answers may be affected by researchers' behaviour -> if behaviour not standardised, could produce differing answers due to diff. cues (interviewer bias)
  • Not an effective way of gaining insight into people who are not verbally articulate/comfortable expressing themselves = results could be skewed in favour of more articulate ppts = representativeness + generalisability limited
  • More time-consuming + expensive = can negatively affect sample size
• What are the strengths of structured interviews?

  • Greater comparability than unstructured interviews -> standardised questions = responses across ppts can be easily compared + patterns can be identified
  • Clear quantitative data = analysis through statistical manipulation of data to see patterns + work out likelihood of these happening by chance alone enabled
  • Analysis of data not as time-consuming/difficult + subjective as unstructured interviews
  • + general strengths of all interviews
• What are the weaknesses of structured interviews?

  • Quantitative data = lacks depth of insight that unstructured interviews have
  • Lowered comparability than questionnaires due to potential interviewer bias influencing answers (unlike written questionnaires)
  • More time-consuming + expensive than questionnaires -> little benefit gained from researcher being present
  • + general weaknesses of all interviews
• What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?

  • Qualitative data = deeper insight into ppts' thoughts, actions + motivations
  • Useful in providing significant info on new lines of enquiry (ppts have no limitations on their answers + researchers can elaborate/ask follow-up questions by adjusting their questions in response )-> benefit gained for greater expense of unstructured interviews over questionnaires
  • + general strengths of all interviews
• What are the weaknesses of unstructured interviews?

  • Qualitative data = results much more time-consuming + difficult to analyse than quantitative data
  • Lower comparability than questionnaires + structured interviews -> questions tailored to ppts' responses = patterns difficult to identify
  • Much greater chance of interviewer bias affecting ppts' answers -> tailored questions = more similar to conversation than structured interview
  • Social desirability bias = more intense with increased rapport between researcher + ppt -> heightened interviewer bias
  • + general weaknesses of all interviews
• What factors does an interview NEED to have?

  • Clarity -> questions = specific + unambiguous = no misinterpretation
  • Avoidance of interviewer bias -> leading questions = results skewed
  • Type of interviewer -> age, gender + cultural heritage could result in ppt reactivity + interviewing skills key, too -> training provided!
  • Record interview -> analysis of data collected easier to conduct
  • Questions in specific order -> factual + basic Qs moving towards nuanced Qs = lowers anxiety/awkwardness
  • Be reflective -> non-verbal behaviours + listening skills can affect ppts' forthcomingness