Endocrine finals

• What is the pancreas responsible for in the body?

  Endocrine and exocrine functions
• What are the four types of cells found in the islets of Langerhans?

  Alpha, Beta, Delta, PP cells
• What hormone do Alpha cells produce?

  Glucagon
• What hormone do Beta cells produce?

  Insulin
• What is the role of Delta cells in the pancreas?

  Regulate insulin and glucagon secretion
• What does PP stand for in pancreatic cells?

  Pancreatic polypeptide
• What triggers the secretion of insulin?

  Increase in blood sugar levels
• What is the primary action of insulin in the body?

  Increase glucose uptake in tissues
• What is glycogenesis?

  Formation of glycogen from glucose
• What is the composition of insulin?

  A/B chains and C peptide
• What is the role of glucagon?

  Increase blood sugar levels
• What characterizes diabetes mellitus?

  Hyperglycemia due to insulin issues
• What is the normal fasting blood sugar range?

  4.4 – 6.1 mmol/l
• What is the fasting glucose test?

  Blood sugar after an overnight fast
• What does the 2-hour glucose tolerance test measure?

  Blood sugar after 75g oral glucose
• What does HbA1c measure?

  Glycosylated hemoglobin over 1-3 months
• What is the HbA1c level for diabetes diagnosis?

  Greater than 48
• What is Type 1 Diabetes characterized by?

  Absolute insulin deficiency
• What causes Type 1 Diabetes?

  Autoimmune destruction of beta cells
• What are common triggers for Type 1 Diabetes?

  Diet, environmental toxins, viral infections
• What are some autoantibodies identified in Type 1 Diabetes?

  Anti-GAD, Anti IA2, Anti ZnT8
• What is insulinitis?

  Inflammation of beta cells
• When does Type 1 Diabetes develop?

  After significant beta cell destruction
• What age group does Type 1 Diabetes usually present in?

  Children or teenagers
• What is LADA?

  Latent onset diabetes of adulthood
• What are common symptoms of Type 1 Diabetes?

  Fatigue, weight loss, polyuria, polydipsia
• What is diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?

  Severe complication of Type 1 Diabetes
• What is the sole treatment for Type 1 Diabetes?

  Insulin therapy
• What is the target HbA1c for Type 1 Diabetes management?

  48 – 59
• How often should blood sugar be checked in Type 1 Diabetes?

  At least twice a day
• What dietary advice is given to Type 1 Diabetes patients?

  Control sugar intake
• What should patients do on sick days?

  Continue insulin even if sick
• What is a biphasic insulin regimen?

  Two injections of mixed insulin daily
• What is a basal-bolus insulin regimen?

  Long-acting insulin at night, short-acting before meals
• What is hypoglycemia?

  Low blood sugar levels
• What are symptoms of hypoglycemia?

  Sweating, confusion, anxiety, tremor
• What is the main risk factor for developing diabetic neuropathy?

  Poor glycemic control
• What is the most common type of neuropathy in diabetes?

  Peripheral polyneuropathy
• What is the presentation of peripheral polyneuropathy?

  Glove and stocking distribution of sensory disturbance
• What are the complications of peripheral polyneuropathy?

  Ulcers, infections, deformities, gangrene