7 The Decline of The Ottoman Empire

• How did the Great Powers play a role in hastening the decline of the Ottoman Empire?

  They gained influence and control over Ottoman Lands and tried to pursue their own economic interests in Turkey.
• What happened in the OE in 1908 that contributed to the destabilisation of peace in Europe?

  The Young Turk Revolution 1908
• Why was the geographical location of the Ottoman Empire significant to the Great Powers ?

  Trading routes to India and China.

  Germany had plans for the Berlin to Bagdhad Railway.

  Russia wanted access to the Black Sea Straits.

  It included countries in the Balkans - a key source of tension.
• What was the infrastructure and industry in Ottoman Territories like ?

  There had been little effort to modernise industry and infrastructure in its territories compared to Europe ( which had undergone the Industrial Revolution ).

  Outdated/Archaic
• Why was the railway boom of the 1850s significant for European Relations with the Ottoman Empire?

  It became a focus of international rivalry as European investors sought to profit from railway-building in the region.

  E.g Berlin to Bagdhad Railway
• What does the opening up of foreign investment highlight about the economic state of the OE?

  It was weak in relation to Europe as it relied on international investment to prevent further economic crisis.
• Why was the OE heavily in debt to the British and French?

  It had borrowed money from them during the Crimean War 1853-1856.
• What was the political state of the OE?

  An autocracy ruled by Sultan Abdul Hamid II.

  He was ruler from 1876 - 1909.
• What was the Hamadian Regime like?

  Authoritarian and increasingly unpopular.

  Abdul Hamid earned the nickname 'Red Sultan' on account of his repressive policies, secret police (The TM) and severe treatment of rebels.

  E.g Armenian Massacres of 1894-96.
• What triggered the Armenian Massacres and How did the Great Powers Respond?

  The Armenian Massacres of 1894-1896 were triggered by the Sultan's suspicion of Christian Armenian Nationalists in the region. The death toll is said to be around 200,000 Armenians killed under Hamadian Government / Secret Police (TM).

  The Great Powers responded with limited humanitarian aid but did not intervene militarily. Significant because they shared religious interests with Armenia (Christianity) and could have added to tensions.
• Why were The Great Powers a threat to the OE?

  The Ottoman Empire feared Europe would dismantle their authority and annex their territory due to their belief that the Turks were incapable of running their own empire any longer in their weak economic and autocratic political state.
• How was intellectualism stifled in the OE and what did this result in?

  The empire did not have a university until 1900.

  As a result, this encouraged intellectuals to study abroad in Western European Institutions which exposed them to new ideas of parliamentary government, different political ideologies and written constitutions.
• What did the intellectuals or "Students-in-Exile" do upon returning to the OE?


  They joined reformist groups which criticised the autocratic position of the OE.

  E.g The Young Ottomans - a forerunner of the Young Turks - which emerged in the 1860s.
• What did Abdul Hamid do in 1876 which suggested he was taking a more liberal approach to politics? How did it end?

  He granted a constitution in 1876 - influenced by reformist groups.

  However, it was quickly overturned after two years and the OE returned to autocratic rule.

  
  

  1876-1878 became known as The First Constitutional Era.
• What was the First Constitutional Era like in the OE?

  The Sultan gave up absolute power.

  The Young Ottomans advocated Ottomanism.

  Constitution granted allowing an elected parliament in Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, greater religious freedom and removal of some censorship.

  Quicky dissolved by Abdul Hamid after two years 1876-78.
• What were Ottomanism and Pan Turkism?

  Ottomanism - The equal treatment of all citizens in the Ottoman Empire regardless of nationality. Essentially the millats living in harmony under a shared empire identity.

  Pan Turkism - The nationalist advocation to unite all Turkish peoples within and outside of the borders of the Ottoman Empire.
• Why was there conflicting discontent in the OE by 1900?

  Intellectuals and liberals wanted emphasis on social reform and political reform suggesting all Ottoman subjects were equal (Ottomanism).

  Turkish nationals placed emphasis on Pan Turkism.
• What did the Sultan do in 1903 in Macedonia?

  Deployed 40,000 Ottoman Troops in Macedonia to stop the spread of reformist groups.
• Why was the OE so outdated compared to Europe?

  The OE lacked modernisation because income always used to flow to them. This was due to their prior influence and prime location which meant they had no need to modernise as they had a system that worked for them. Resulted in them receiving the nickname "The Sick Man of Europe" suggesting they did not have the superiority and status they once did - authority dwindling out / declining.
• Why did other Powers / Empires see the Ottoman decline as an opportunity?

  They saw it as an opportunity to assert themselves in the region or gain new territory.

  Russia saw the Ottoman decline in the Balkans as a way to expand its empire via Pan-Slavism. Austria-Hungary had interests here to expand its empire e.g Bosnia Herzegovina.
• Why was the diverse accumulation of countries within the OE a focal point for tension?


  The diverse mix of ethnicities (millats) within the empire led to the rise of nationalism - especially in the Balkans where Pan-Slavism was becoming popular.

  Religion also played a factor with many Balkan states being predominantly Christian and states such as Turkey being mostly Islamic.
• What were the main social issues within the OE?

  >Desire for social reform

  >Desire for political reform - severity of Hamadian Regime

  >Competing national identities

  >Conflicting religions
• What three types of policy about Pan-Turkism did Yusuf Akcura publish in the newspaper The Turk in 1904?

  >Argued the Turks were the most superior and the plan of Ottomanism was unrealistic.

  >The nationalities (millats) will never be able to work together.

  >Suggests withdrawing from non-Turk areas such as The Balkans and North Africa and should instead place focus on conquering areas were only Turks live.
• What were the countries in the Balkans like in 1900? (In terms of independence)

  At the Treaty of Berlin 1878, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were all recognised as independent states.

  Bosnia and Herzegovina, though still Ottoman territories were occupied and administered by.

  Bulgaria was granted internal autonomy but remained under Ottoman suzerainty (controlled its own domestic affairs but not foreign policy).

  Macedonia was the only state still under full Ottoman control.
• What problems did the Balkan regions face in 1900?

  Ethnic tensions, political instability, and territorial disputes.

  
  

  >How to push back Turkish control

  >How to settle tensions between themselves
• What was happening in Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria in 1900 (internally) ?

  They were each growing in wealth and population as well as improving their military strength and expenditure - posed an issue for the dwindling Ottomans.

  
  

  Bulgaria in particular became more aggressive with their foreign policy in response to struggles against Ottoman rule and its government became more militaristic in nature.
• What happened between Greece and Turkey in 1897?

  Greco-Turkish War.

  The Greeks had been developing their navy but war with Turkey ended in humiliation. However, European forces (influenced by the pro-Greek British) were unwilling to allow Turkey to profit from this. As a result, Greece didn't pay a large sum of reparations and they also lost no territory.

  
  

  Example of European powers intervening to prevent the OE regaining its lost territory in the Balkans.
• Why did Macedonia cause an issue for the OE in the early 1900s?


  It was the only region of the Balkan Peninsular still under full Ottoman control and was home to Greek, Serbs, Albanians, Turks and Bulgarians.

  As a result, many clashing states were keen to foster nationalism in Macedonia and secure more territory for themselves.

  Extra : Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria all bordered Macedonia which threatened Ottoman authority as well as the fact they could present themselves as co-religionists (Christians).
• What was the Pan-Hellenic League?

  Greek nationalist view that all Greek peoples should unite in a greater Greek state.

  Geographically this includes: Greece, Macedonia, Cyprus and Crete.
• What uprising happened in Macedonia in 1903?

  Ilinden Uprising organised by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO). Nationalist movement to further Bulgaria's political interests here.

  IMRO had much support of the local Slav Christian Population.
• What did Abdul Hamid do in repsonse to the Ilinden Uprising in Macedonia?

  Brutally crushed the uprising.

  40,000 Ottoman troops were already based there.
• What did Austria-Hungary and Russia do in the wake of violence in Macedonia?

  Austria-Hungary and Russia signed the Mürzsteg agreement in November 1903.

  Non-ottoman officers were sent to Macedonia to keep the peace impartially.

  Extra: This shows how once again European powers are intervening which highlights the Sultan's lack of strength.
• What was a long-term cause of the Young Turk movement in 1908 in terms of intellectual people's dissatisfaction?

  >Frustrated by the increasing loss of territory and influence (most severely as a result of the Treaty of Berlin 1878) which dramatically decreased "Turkey In Europe" aka the Balkan Peninsular.

  >Viewed foreign involvement in the Empire's finances as a sign of inherent weakness but rather than blaming Europe they saw the repressive policies of the Hamadian regime as the greatest cause of Ottoman Decline.
• What was a long-term cause of the Young Turk movement in 1908 in terms of nationalism?

  Nationalism (Pan Turkism/Slavism) was a threat to every European empire.

  The Sultan's opponents believed it would pose less of a danger to the OE if the wide range of millats were represented in a Western-Style parliament. As such they advocated for the revival of the 1876 constitution.
• Why did the reformers want a revival of the 1876 constitution in terms of the Young Turk Movement?

  >It would appease all of the millats.

  >It would lead to a more representative governement.

  >It would better maintain the loyalty of the people.

  >It would align with the ideal of Ottomanism.

  >It would not be an autocratic system.

  
  

  The Young Turks included many "Students-in-exile" who had been exposed to different political systems and written constitutions while studying abroad"
• Why was European involvement in Ottoman affairs a humiliation for the OE?

  It suggested it was weak and could not control its own empire.

  Also unable to stand up to Europe - cartoon source "Abdul Hamid watches on" - The Sultan is watching from the side-lines of the situation and simply has to accept European interference.
• Why was the Macedonian Question a short term cause of the Young Turk Revolution?

  Ilinden uprising 1903 - The Sultan's fierce and brutal response highlighted the cruelty of his policy towards the millats. This fuelled more determined and ambitious nationalist groups e.g Serb nationalists increased their guerrilla activities in Macedonia.

  As a result, according to The Young Turks (the sultan's opponents who advocated Ottomanism), the need to gain the loyalty of the Ottoman subjects within a representative parliament became more urgent.
• Aside from fuelling nationalist groups in Macedonia, what did the 1903 crisis also attract? How was this a short term cause of the Young Turk Revolution?

  International attention and support ( as exemplified by the Murzsteg agreement ).

  The Young Turks blamed the Sultan for allowing and inadvertently encouraging the dismantling of the Empire by foreign powers who seemed convinced of Turkey's inability to rule their empire fairly.
• What other group applied additional pressure on the Sultan which could also have been seen as a short term reason of The Young Turk Revolution?

  Disgruntled Turkish army officers stationed in Macedonia who had gone months without pay.
• The Young Turks were divided between those who believed the empire should be retained along religious and ethnic lines with Turkey completely in control, known as Pan-Turkism, and those who believed the empire should be retained through a strong government with central control in Turkey but representing all of the millats in the Empire, known as Ottomanism.