Research Methods

• Humans cannot be studied in the same way as the natural world. Humans are complex and have meanings behind their actions; therefore, sociologists must study these meanings to understand people and society.
• Interpretivist sociologists

  Lean towards qualitative research methods that produce detailed accounts, such as unstructured interviews and case studies
• Mixed methods approach

  Researchers can use 'the best of both worlds' to better research the topic at hand
• Sampling in sociological research

  • Samples should aim to be representative, meaning they can be applied to the wider population
• Probability sampling

  • Simple random
  • Systematic random
  • Stratified random
• Non-probability sampling

  • Snowball
  • Quota
  • Purposive
• Collecting and analysing sociological data

  1. Primary research: surveys, questionnaires, interviews, longitudinal studies, observation studies

  2. Secondary research: use of official statistics, newspapers, personal documents
• Quantitative data

  Mainly numerical, useful for testing relationships, patterns or correlations
• Qualitative data

  Heavily word-based, useful for gaining depth, detail and insight into a particular issue
• When studying societal issues and humans, researchers will likely face ethical issues. Research has to be conducted in a certain way without infringing on the participants' wellbeing, interests and autonomy.
• Key research evaluation points

  • Validity
  • Reliability
  • Representativeness
  • Generalisability
  • Ethics
• Sociological research methods

  A step-by-step process involving collecting, analysing, and interpreting data to gain knowledge or a better understanding of the world we live in
• 4 types of research methods in sociology

  • Primary research
  • Secondary research
  • Quantitative research
  • Qualitative research
• Primary research

  Collecting new, original data in the process of conducting the research (e.g. interviews, questionnaires, observations)
• Secondary research

  Gathering and examining data that has already been collected (e.g. official statistics, documents, media texts)
• Quantitative research

  Produces numerical data that covers a broad range (e.g. studying social trends, relationships between components)
• Qualitative research

  Produces in-depth, non-numerical information (e.g. describing and analysing various facets of social life)
• Mixed-methods research

  Uses a combination of both quantitative and qualitative techniques
• Research methods in sociology

  • Social surveys (questionnaires)
  • Interviews
  • Content analysis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Experiments
  • Observations
• Sociologists' view of social phenomena

  Influences whether they adopt quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods of research
• Existing literature forms a key part of the research background - sociologists must familiarise themselves with it to build upon it
• Quantitative methods

  Research instruments that aim to measure social phenomena in numerical terms
• Qualitative methods

  Research focusing on categorical terms or 'thick descriptions' - insights about research subjects focusing in-depth on details and particularities, typically presented in a narrative format
• Quantitative data

  • Measuring the socioeconomic status of a school student by asking how much their parents earn
• Qualitative data


  • Asking a student to describe their lifestyle
• Existing literature forms a key part of the research background
• Sociologists must familiarise themselves with existing research in order to build upon it instead of repeating it
• Inductive reasoning

  Seeks to develop new theories
• Deductive reasoning


  Aims to test existing theories
• Researchers must obey the rules of research quality and adopt appropriate values, including an excellent grasp of research integrity and ethics
• There is a lot of debate about the extent to which research can and should be value-free
• Steps of the research process

  1. Observe social phenomena

  2. Develop theory

  3. Formulate hypothesis

  4. Design research

  5. Select research subjects

  6. Collect and analyze data

  7. Report findings
• Sociological research methods

  • Social surveys
  • Interviews
  • Content analysis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Experiments
  • Observations
• Sociological research focuses on various issues, including social groups, institutions, systems, developments, and changes in society
• The choice of sociological research methods depends upon practical, philosophical, and ethical considerations and the nature of the topic
• Sampling

  The process of selecting and recruiting a small proportion of people from the target population that a researcher wants to study
• Purpose of sampling in sociology

  • To be able to make inferences and generalisations about the entire target population based on the analysis of the information collected from the sample
• Types of sampling methods in sociology

  • Probability sampling (simple random, systematic random, stratified random)
  • Non-probability sampling (snowball, quota, purposive)
• Probability sampling

  • Simple random: selecting names randomly from a list
  • Systematic random: selecting every 10th name from a list
  • Stratified random: selecting a proportional sample from different subgroups
• Non-probability sampling

  • Snowball: asking initial respondents to identify other potential participants
  • Quota: selecting a set number of participants from relevant categories
  • Purposive: selecting participants based on the specific needs of the study