AQA PSYCHOLOGY

• Free recall


  Learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order.
• Recognition recall


  Recall from a list presented, individuals pick out which they can remember.
• Cued recall


  Reproducing information from memory by making use of some kind of aid or hint to assist retrieval ( paired associate learning)
• Definition of memory

  The retention of learning or experience. Storage of information over time.
• Encoding


  Putting information into storage
• Storage

  Keeping information stored
• Retrieval


  Getting information back out of storage when required.
• Three Forms of Storage

  1.Sensory memory,

  2.Short term memory (STM)

  3.Long term memory (LTM)
• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971)


  Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) developed the Multi Store Model.
• Multi Store Model (MSM)

  One explanation of memory: Most widely used and accepted.

  Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that memory is made up of 3 memory stores - sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

  For information to be transferred to LTM it must be rehearsed while in STM otherwise it is forgotten.
• Peterson and Peterson (1959)


  They showed participants trigrams and then told them to count back in 3's so as to block the rehearsal loop to find out how long the duration of STM is. After 3 seconds around 90% recalled them correctly but after 18 seconds this reduced to less than 10%

  Supports the Multi store Model explanation of memory
• Peterson and Peterson Evaluation

  1. State your criticism:

  Peterson and Peterson's 1959 study was artificial.

  
  

  2. Justify your criticism:

  Artificial because they used nonsense trigrams to test memory, which are not to real-life memory tasks so the experiment lacks ecological validity!

  
  

  3. Explain why (strength/Limitation)

  You cant generalise the findings to real life
• Murdock (1962)


  Aim: to provide evidence to support the multi store explanation of memory.

  Murdock presented participants with a list of words at a rate of about one second. He found that participants recall words from the beginning(known as the primacy effect) and the end of the list (positions 1,2,3 and 18,19,20)

  Murdock claimed that the recency effect is evidence to show that the last few words are still in the term store and the primacy effect is evidence to show that the first few words were still in the long-term store.
• Recency Effect


  When people tend to remember the last few words, because they were recently heard.
• Primacy Effect


  Remembering items presented first.
• Barbara Milner (1966)


  Milner's patient, H.M, following brain surgery to cure him eof pilepsy, the patient suffered damage to his memory. Given some information, he could remember it as long as he attended to it. His STM was normal. However, he seemed unable to store new information in LTM. The inability to store new information in LTM after brain damage is called anterograde amnesia.

  This suggests that brain damage affected LTM but not STM, in which the 2 stores must be separate and distinct. This evidence supports the Multi-store model.
• F.C. Bartlett (1930's)


  Bartlett suggests that we only store some elements of new experiences in memory, and, when we remember the events we reconstruct them, filling in missing info with our own schemas.

  
  

  Schema: Our own stored opinions, prejudices, expectations, stereotypes that help us reconstruct memories.
• Serial Reproduction

  The passing of information from persons to persons.
• Repeated Reproduction


  The way information is passed to persons over time lengths.
• Craik and Lockhart (1975)

  Aim: To find out whether or not how the word was processed affected how well it was recalled.

  
  

  Method: Participants questions about specific words and were asked to answer Yes/No. some questions required semantic processing; others required phonetic processing and visual processing. participant's had to then recognise which words they had already seen.

  
  

  Results: words that require semantic processing were more likely to be remembered, the least remembered words were those that required visual processing.

  Conclusion: Processing material in a deep way, recall is better.
• Levels of Processing:

  VISUAL/STRUCTURAL: (Shallow) words remembered least. 15% of people remembered these words. E.G is the word CLEAR in lowercase?

  PHONETIC: (Deep)

  VISUAL/STRUCTURAL
• Sensation


  Information that we receive through our senses.
• Perception


  When we receive sensory information and how we interpret/make sense of it.
• Depth Cue


  Source of information from the environment that assists perception of how far away objects are and therefore perceive depth
• Monocular Depth Cue


  A way of detecting depth/distance using just one eye. This allows us to judge distance well, but not perfectly.
• Height in Plane


  How high the object appears in the image. Objects higher up in the visual field appear further away.
• Relative Size


  How large an object appears in an image. Smaller objects in the visual field appear further away.
• Occlusion


  When one object seems to cover part of another object. Objects that obscure (hide) or are in front of others appear to be closer.
• Linear Perspective

  When straight lines are angled so they would converge (come together) at a point on the horizon. This point is known as the vanishing point, useful if we want to show distance in a landscape.
• Binocular Depth Cue


  A type of depth cue that provides information about distance using two eyes.
• Convergence


  Our brain detects the differences in our eye muscles. We focus our eyes differently in order to see closer objects, to how we focus them to see objects that are further away. The brain detects the differences in the muscles and uses it as a cue for distance.
• Retinal Disparity


  Comparing the images received by the eyes. If something is close to us, there is quite a difference in what each eye sees - the left and the right eye view slightly different images. If something is further away, there will be less of a difference between the two images.
• Motion parallax


  the way that the visual field changes with movement, with close objects seeming to move more than objects further away.
• Inference


  a CONCLUSION reached on the basis of past experience of knowledge.
• Nature


  the idea that our characteristics and behaviours are inherited.
• Visual Illusion


  When our visual perception is 'tricked' into seeing something inaccurately. They are 'unconscious mistakes' of perception.
• Ambiguity


  When an image could equally be one thing or another. For example, Rubin's Vase could equally be a chalice or two faces.
• Fiction


  Creating something that isn't really there, to complete an image. For example, our brain creates a white triangle in the Kanizsa Triangle illusion.
• Size Constancy


  Keeping our original perception of the size of an object, even when the information received by the eyes changes.
• Misinterpreted Depth Cues


  Wrongly applying the 'rules' of depth perception. Sometimes our brain detects distance when it is not actually there. For example the Muller Lyer illusion when our brain interprets the top line as longer, however they are the same size.