5 learning & LTM

• Learning: accumulation of knowledge and skills
• Learning & memory come hand in hand – Need memory to support learning and vice versa
• Memory processes


  What can we do with info received to increase likelihood of retrieving memory later on
• Both explicit and implicit learning stored in LTM
• Explicit learning


  • Conscious, intentional learning of new info
• Explicit learning


  • Sitting in a lecture trying to encode what the professor is saying
• Implicit learning


  Unconscious, incidental learning without trying or awareness
• Implicit learning


  • Learning Korean vocabulary while watching a drama, riding a bicycle, driving, swimming, typing on a keyboard without looking
• Assessing Implicit learning


  Serial Reaction Time Task
• Serial Reaction Time Task

  • Subjects press buttons corresponding to the position of a blue dot as fast as possible
• Implicit learning is relatively easy to do but hard to verbalize accurately
• Characteristics of Implicit learning

  • Robustness, Age independence, IQ independence, Low variability in individuals, Common to most species
• Neural correlates of learning

  Implicit learning associated with the striatum, Explicit learning associated with 2 areas in frontal lobes, hippocampus, and surrounding medial temporal lobes
• No double dissociation between implicit and explicit learning
• H.M. Henry Molaison study: Removal of hippocampus led to anterograde amnesia
• Strategies to optimize memory performance

  Levels of Processing
• Levels of Processing


  Processing appearance/sound/meaning of word study
• Levels of Processing


  • Structural processing (appearance), Phonemic processing (sound), Semantic processing (meaning)
• Deeper processing


  More elaborate processing leads to better remembrance
• Ways of processing words

  • Shallower - Structural processing (appearance)
  • Phonemic processing (sound)
  • Deeper - Semantic processing (meaning)
• Results show an increase in ability to remember words when processing at a deeper level (meaning) with the highest percentage
• Survival processing effect study conducted by Nairne et al., 2007
• Survival processing study


  1. Participants asked to evaluate 30 nouns

  2. 3 conditions: Condition 1 - Imagine you are stranded. Condition 2 - Imagine you are moving overseas. Condition 3 (control) - Evaluate the pleasantness of the words’ referents

  3. Results show words related to survival had the highest proportion of recall
• Evolutionary perspective


  Humans evolved to give advantage to processing about survival, leading to deeper processing of survival-related concepts
• Transfer Appropriate Processing study by Morris et al., 1977
• Transfer Appropriate Processing study

  1. Participants learned words at shallow (sound) level or deep (meaning) level

  2. Tested with either standard recognition memory task or rhythm recognition task

  3. Results show a higher proportion of recognition when there is a match between the way information was encoded and tested
• Distinctiveness study by Kirchoff et al., 2005
• Distinctiveness study


  Distinctive information associated with strong, unique, unusual cues is less prone to interference and leads to better remembrance
• Testing Effect study by Roediger & Karpicke, 2006
• Testing Effect study


  1. Method of studying - Restudy vs self-test study

  2. Results show no universal advantage, short retention favors studying 4 times, longer retention favors repeated testing for more robust memory
• Test Format Effects study by Kang et al., 2007
• Test Format Effects study

  1. Participants tested via Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) or Short Answer Questions (SAQ)

  2. Results show SAQ with feedback is more effective in enhancing student learning and fosters better long-term retention of information
• Declarative vs Nondeclarative memory
• Declarative memory
• Nondeclarative memory
• Declarative EPISODIC memory
• Metaphorical time-travel in Declarative EPISODIC memory
• Constructive nature of Declarative EPISODIC memory
• Recollection in Declarative EPISODIC memory
• Familiarity in Declarative EPISODIC memory