CHAPTER 1 (paper 1)

• long bones


  used for gross movement and provide leverage
• short bones


  used for fine movements, weight bearing and act as stabilisers
• flat bones


  used for protection, large surface area which allow muscles to attach to them
• irregular bones


  own individual role and used for protection
• types of long bones

  humerus, femur, tibia
• types of short bones

  carpals, tarsarls
• types of flat bones

  cranium, ribs, scapula
• types of irregular bones

  patella
• support of bones

  keep us up right in position and holds organs in place
• protection of bones


  some surround and protect our vital organs from damage
• movement of bones

  helps the body move by providing an anchor of muscles to pull against, the long bones in the arms and legs work as levers
• shape and structure of bones


  provides the general shape of the body and the points for mucles to attach so they can contract when moving
• blood cell production of bones


  the inner marrow of long bones produces red and white blood cells
• storage of minerals in bones


  they store several minerals including cacium and phosphorus, which can be released into tje blood stream when needed
• elbow joint


  hingle joint, movements: flexion and extention
• shoulder joint


  ball and socket joint, movements: flexion, extention, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction
• hip joint


  ball and socket joint, movements: flexion, extention, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction
• knee joint


  hinge joint, movements: flexion, extension
• ankle joint


  hinge joint, movements: plantar flexion, dorsiflexion
• ligament


  stabilises joints
• bursae


  prevents rubbing and damage to joints
• synovial membrane


  produces synovial fluid
• joint capsule


  encloses the joint
• cartilage


  protects the and of the bone to prevent friction and cushions the joint
• synovial fluid


  lubricates the joint
• synovial joint diagram

  A) cartilage

  B) ligament

  C) joint capsule

  D) synovial membrane

  E) synovial fluid

  
• what is the cardio respirtory system made up of?

  heart, lungs, blood vessels and blood
• respiratory system

  nasal cavity / mouth -> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli
• alveoli


  many tiny air sacs in the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange characteristics include:

  • small in size but large in numbers, they provide a large surface area for the exchanges of gases
  • they have thin walls (1 cell thick) which allow gases to pass through easier
  • the alveoli and the capillaries are touching eachother, this shortens the distance for gaseous exchange
  • each alveolus is covered in capillaries so they have rich blood supply of gases to diffuse from
• gaseous exchange


  take splace in the alveoli where two gases oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse down a concerntration gradient from high to low. CO2 diffuses from the capillary into the alveoli and oxygen from the alveoli into the capillary. when diffusing into the blood the oxygen combines with haemoglobin to make oxhaemoglobin in the red blood cells.
• diffusion


  movement of gases / substances from a high concerntration to a low concerntration
• inspiration


  • intercostal muscles contract lifting the rib cage up and out
  • the diaphragm contracts and flattens, therefore moves down and increases the volume of the lungs
  • the pressure inside the lungs decreases and the air rushes in
• expiration


  • intercostal mucles relax, moving the rib cage down and in
  • the diaphragm relaxes and moves up which decreases the volume of the lungs
  • the pressure inside the lungs increases and the air moves out
• tidal volume


  volume of air breathed in or out during a normal breath at rest
• expiratory reserve volume


  the additonal air that can be forcibly exhaled after the expiration of a normal tidal volume
• inspiratory reserve volume


  the additional air that can be forcible inhaled after the inspiration of a normal tidal volume
• residual volume


  the volume of air that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration
• vital capacity


  the maximum amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled and exhaled
• arteries


  carries blood away from the heart

  • thick elastic walls
  • high pressure blood
  • small lumen (can expand)
• veins


  carried blood towards the heart

  • thin walls
  • valves (blood is working against gravity)
  • low pressure blood
  • big lumen