POLS 207 Exam 2

• Most people participate in the political system through voting in elections, engaging in political discussions with friends or family, and occasionally attending rallies, marches, or demonstrations to voice their opinions on specific issues. Additionally, some individuals may contribute financially to political campaigns or causes, run for office themselves, or participate in activities like writing letters or emails to elected officials to express their views.
• A rational voter is someone who evaluates the benefits and costs associated with voting, ultimately determining that the benefits outweigh the costs. These benefits may include influencing policy outcomes or fulfilling civic duty, while costs can involve time, effort to become informed, and perceived impact. Rational voters prioritize their participation in elections when they perceive that the benefits of voting outweigh the associated costs.
• Voting behavior varies among individuals based on factors such as age, education level, income, race, ethnicity, and political engagement. Generally, older individuals, those with higher levels of education and income, and individuals who are more politically engaged are more likely to vote. Conversely, younger individuals, those with lower levels of education and income, and individuals who are less politically engaged are less likely to vote.
• Some states have higher voter turnout because they are more politically competitive, commonly known as battleground states. In these states, individual votes are perceived to have a greater impact on the outcome of elections, motivating more people to participate in the electoral process. Additionally, states with more accessible voting procedures, higher levels of education, income, and civic engagement also tend to experience higher voter turnout.
• Texas Voter Requirements:

  • Citizen of the U.S.
  • At least 18 years old
  • Resident of Texas for 30 days
• The 15th Amendment (1870) prohibits the denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude, granting African American men the right to vote.
• The 19th Amendment (1920) grants women the right to vote, prohibiting the denial of voting rights based on sex.
• The 24th Amendment (1964) prohibits the imposition of poll taxes in federal elections, ensuring that the right to vote is not denied due to an individual's inability to pay a tax.
• The 26th Amendment (1971) lowers the voting age to 18 years old, ensuring that individuals aged 18 and older cannot be denied the right to vote based on age.
• The responsible-party model emerged to ensure parties offer clear policy alternatives and hold their elected officials accountable for enacting these policies. It emphasizes parties' roles in developing policy positions, educating voters, recruiting like-minded candidates, and organizing to win elections. However, challenges arise as parties often fail to provide clear policy alternatives, and voter decisions are not solely based on policy considerations.
• The candidate-centered model is a political model where individuals rally around a specific candidate rather than a political party. It emerged with the introduction of direct primaries, where voters heavily influence candidate selection. In this model, candidates staff their own campaigns, raise funds independently, and organize personal teams to direct their campaigns, shifting the focus from party structures to individual personalities.
• In the candidate-centered model, parties have seen a decline in control over the ballot. This shift has led to a rise in independent voters and decline in political patronage. Elected officials deviate from representing party interests, causing ticket splitting and divided government. This model places increased focus on individual candidates rather than party affiliations, shifting the emphasis from who you know to what you know in modern politics.
• Open Primary: An election in which voters are not required to declare their party affiliation beforehand and may choose on the day of the primary which party's primary ballot they wish to cast.
• Closed Primary: An election in which only registered members of a particular political party are allowed to participate in selecting that party's candidates. In Texas, voters must consistently vote with the same party throughout the primary season, even if they are not registered with that party.
• Runoff Primary: An additional election held in some jurisdictions when no candidate receives a majority of the votes in the primary election. The top two candidates from the primary then advance to a runoff election, where the winner is determined by a majority vote.
• General Election: An election held to choose public officials, typically including candidates from multiple political parties, where voters select their preferred candidates to fill various government offices. General elections are usually held after primary elections and determine the final outcome of the electoral process.
• Primary Election: An election held to select each political party's nominee for a specific public office, where registered party members vote for their preferred candidate. Primary elections are typically held before general elections and serve to narrow down the field of candidates within each party.
• Initiative Election: An election in which citizens propose and vote on new laws or changes to existing laws directly, bypassing the legislative process. In initiative elections, citizens collect signatures to place a proposal on the ballot, and voters then decide whether to approve or reject the proposed measure.
• Recall Election: A process where voters can remove an elected official from office before the end of their term through a direct vote.
• The national party committees play a crucial role in maintaining party operations between elections, ensuring the organization's continuity and effectiveness. Additionally, during presidential election years, they are responsible for planning the nominating convention and making substantial expenditures to support their party's nominee, including coordinated spending with the nominee's campaign and independent expenditures.
• Negative Campaigning: A strategy used by political candidates or parties to criticize or attack their opponents' policies or records rather than focusing on their personal qualities. It aims to sway voters by highlighting perceived weaknesses or failures in the opponent's platform or past actions.
• Negative campaigning is often successful when it focuses on opponent's policies and not their personal qualities, when presented by the press rather than TV ads, and when targeted at younger voters.
• Baker v. Carr (1962): A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the principle of "justiciability" in redistricting cases, granting federal courts the authority to review and intervene in disputes over the drawing of electoral districts. The ruling declared that the redistricting of state legislative districts is not a political question but rather a constitutional issue subject to judicial review.
• Gerrymandering: The practice of manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or group over another. Gerrymandering involves creating districts that are either heavily skewed towards one party or split into multiple smaller districts to dilute the voting power of certain groups.
• Redistricting: The process of redrawing electoral district lines to reflect changes in population distribution. Redistricting occurs every ten years following the release of the US Census data, and its purpose is to ensure fair representation for all constituents.
• The significance of Reynolds v. Sims lies in its establishment of the constitutional principle that electoral districts must be apportioned based on population, ensuring that each individual's vote carries equal weight in the electoral process.
• What was established in Reynolds v. Sims?

  One Person, One Vote
• Legislatures are responsible for enacting laws, collectively considering a significant volume of proposed legislation each session and passing a substantial portion of them into law.
• Legislatures are pivotal in considering constitutional amendments, gubernatorial appointments, and the appointment of state court judges, often engaging in shared processes with other branches of government
• Approving budgets is another critical function of legislatures, with the allocation of resources determining "who gets what, when, and how," making it one of their most significant tasks.
• Legislators serve their constituents by addressing their concerns and needs, a responsibility that demands a significant amount of their time and attention.
• Legislatures also play a crucial oversight role, monitoring the activities of state agencies and frequently challenging state administrators to ensure accountability and effective governance.
• Under the Principal-Agent Model, legislatures act as principals, enacting laws but lacking the ability to implement them, while the executive branch serves as agents, responsible for enforcement but not lawmaking. Therefore, it falls upon the legislature to oversee that the executive branch executes laws correctly and faithfully.
• An incumbent is a current officeholder seeking reelection. Incumbents have advantages in elections due to their visibility. They also benefit from the resources of their office, including staff, offices, expense accounts, and travel budgets. Incumbents receive significant financial support from interest groups, and their experience and established records make them a "known commodity" to voters, who may rely on their past performance when deciding how to vote.
• Appointment: The act of assigning or designating a person to a position or role, typically by an authority figure or governing body. This process often involves selecting individuals to fill government positions or roles within organizations based on qualifications, experience, or other relevant criteria.
• Regular Legislative Session: A biennial session of the Texas Legislature that occurs once every two years, lasting for a maximum of 140 days. During this period, lawmakers convene to consider and enact legislation, develop the state budget, and address various policy issues affecting the state.
• Special Legislative Session: Called by the Governor to address specific issues or emergencies outside the regular biennial session. These sessions are limited to a maximum of 30 days and focus on the issues outlined in the Governor's call, which can include passing legislation or addressing urgent matters affecting the state.
• Committees play a crucial role in the legislative process, serving as the primary bodies where proposed legislation is reviewed, revised, and amended. Typically consisting of 20 to 30 standing committees, these bodies are responsible for conducting hearings, analyzing bills, and producing reports to inform the larger legislative body's decision-making. Committee assignments are typically made by leadership, taking into account members' occupational backgrounds and chamber preferences.
• The majority of legislative work occurs within committees. They act as a microcosm of the larger legislative body, allowing for detailed examination and discussion of proposed legislation. In many cases, the Speaker of the House chooses the committee chairs, who play a pivotal role in setting the committee's agenda and guiding its proceedings.
• In most cases, appointments to committees are made by the respective leader of that chamber, who may consider factors such as seniority, expertise, and party affiliation when making these appointments. Additionally, seniority within the legislative body may also influence committee assignments, with more experienced members often given preference for committee positions.