memory - psychology p1

• Definition of coding

  The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.
• Definition of capacity

  The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
• Definition of duration

  The length of time information can be held in memory
• Baddeley's research into coding


  Four groups that were asked to recall the words that they heard.

  Group 1 - acoustically similar

  Group 2 - acoustically dissimilar

  Group 3 - semantically similar

  Group 4 - semantically dissimilar

  Participants were asked to recall the in the correct order. When participants recalled them immediately they tended to do worse with acoustically similar words.

  When they recalled the list after 20 minutes they did worse with semantically similar words.

  Acoustic = STM Semantic = LTM
• Episodic memory

  Memory for events in our lives . Time-stamped.
• Semantic memory

  Memory for knowledge of the world. Knowledge of words
• Procedural memory

  Memory for automatic and skilled behaviours.
• Evaluation of Baddeley's research

  One strength is he identified a clear difference between two memory stores. However a limitation is that a artificial stimulus was used which reduces its external validity.
• Evaluation of the types of long term memory

  Clive wearing and HM had damaged episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories were still relatively fine.
• Elements of the multi-store model


  Atkinson and Shiffrin

  Stimulus from the environment

  Sensory register -echoic and iconic

  STM

  LTM

  (retrieval from the LTM to the STM)

  (attention from the sensory register to the LTM)

  (rehearsal from the STM to the LTM)

  
• Evaluation of the multi store model

  One strength is research support from Baddeley showing that STM and LTM are different.

  One limitation is the prolonged rehearsal is not needed for the transfer of information from the STM to the LTM.
• Definition of the sensory register in the MSM


  Very brief duration , high capacity and transfer to the STM is done by attention.
• Differences between the LTM and the STM

  STM = limited capacity and codes information acoustically

  LTM = unlimited capacity and duration , semantic coding
• Elements of the Working memory model


  Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

  Phonological loop - deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which information arrives.

  - phonological store is the words you hear.

  - articulatory process is the maintenance rehearsal where the sounds of words are repeated.

  Visuospatial sketchpad - limited capacity

  - visual cache = stores visual data

  - inner scribe = records the arrangements of objects in the visual field.

  Episodic buffer - temporary store of information = records events and has limited capacity.

  
• Evaluation of the WMM

  One limitation is that there is a lack of clarity over the nature of the central executive.

  One strength is the research support regarding KF's study.
• Clinical evidence of the WMM - Shallice and Warrington


  The case of KF

  After his brain injury KF had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual information normally. Therefore the visuospatial sketchpad is still intact.
• Two types of interference

  Proactive - forgetting occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer memories.

  Retroactive - forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories that are already stored.
• Evaluation of Interference

  One limitation is that interference is temporary and can be overcome by using cues.

  Another limitation is that most studies supporting interference are lab-based so researchers control variables. Therefore there are unrealistic procedures and artificial materials.
• Definition of retrieval failure

  a form of forgetting that occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access memory.

  Cue - a trigger of information that allows us to access memory.
• Research into retrieval failure

  Tulving 1983

  Reviewed research into retrieval failure and discovered a consistent pattern to the findings. This allowed the discovery of the encoding specificity principle which states that a cue has to be both present at encoding and present at retrieval in order to be helpful. It follows that if the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different there will be some forgetting.
• Non meaningful cues

  Context dependent forgetting - recall depends on external cues (eg. weather or place)

  State dependent forgetting - recall depends on internal cues (eg. feeling upset or being drunk)
• Evaluation of retrieval failure

  One strength is that retrieval cues can help overcome forgetting in everyday situations.

  One limitation is that context effects may depend substantially on the type of memory being tested.
• Research into misleading information as a factor affecting the accuracy of the eyewitness testimony

  Loftus and Palmer

  arranged for 45 participants to watch film clips of car accidents and then asked them questions about it.

  They were asked a leading question or otherwise known as misleading information.

  Each group had a different verb in the question asked. The leading question impacted on what the answer was.
• Evaluation of Loftus and Palmer's research

  One strength is the research into misleading information has practical application in the criminal justice system.
• Anxiety as a factor affecting the accuracy of the eyewitness testimony

  Anxiety has negative effects on recall due to the physiological arousal preventing us from paying attention to important cues.

  Johnson and Scott - 1976

  weapon focus experiment

  Participants in the low anxiety condition heard a casual conversation in the next room and then saw a man walk past carrying a pen with grease on his hands.

  In the high anxiety condition - Other participants heard a heated argument with the sound of breaking glass and then a man walked out the room holding a knife covered in blood.

  Tunnel theory - only 33% of people in the second condition could point out the face of the man with the knife.
• Evaluation of the tunnel theory experiment

  One limitation is that it may not have tested anxiety because weapon focus is due to unusualness rather than anxiety.
• Procedure of the cognitive interview

  Fisher and Gieselman - used a method based on psychological evidence.

  1) report everything

  2) reinstate the context

  3) reverse the order

  4) change perspective

  5) the enhanced cognitive interview

  This improved the accuracy of the EWT.
• Evaluation of the cognitive interview

  One limitation is that it is time consuming and takes a lot more time than a standard interview. Therefore it is not realistic to be used by the police. It also requires specialist training.
• definition of encoding 


  the act of getting information into our memory stores through processing