MIDTERMS

• Culture


  Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation
• The Iceberg Concept of Culture


  • Surface culture (above sea level, emotional level relatively low)
  • Deep culture (unspoken rules partially below sea level, emotional level very high; unconscious rules completely below sea level, emotional level intense)
• Cross-Cultural Studies


  Compare what happens in one culture with what happens in one or more other cultures, provide information about the degree to which people are similar, and to what degree behaviors are specific to certain cultures
• Individualism


  Set of values that give priority to personal rather than to group goals
• Values of Individualistic Cultures


  • Personal choice
  • Intrinsic motivation
  • Self-esteem
  • Self-maximization
• Collectivism


  A set of values that support the group
• Values of Collective Cultures


  • Connectedness to the family and other close relationships
  • Orientation to the larger group
  • Respect and obedience
• Socio-economic Status (SES)


  Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
• Characteristics of Members of a Society


  • Occupations that vary in prestige (some have more access than others to higher-status occupations)
  • Different levels of educational attainment (some have more access than others to better education)
  • Different economic resources
  • Different levels of power to influence a community's institutions
• Characteristics of Middle-Income Households/Families in the Philippines


  • Greater access to education, health, and other services (not necessarily from the government)
  • Higher educational attainment, which is why more of them have better-quality jobs
  • Spend more on their children's education, through private schools and tutoring services
  • Smaller families with fewer children
  • Most live in urban areas, especially in Metro Manila and nearby areas
  • 3 in every 4 live in a space that they own, while 23% rent, 3% in the slums, but make up a large chunk of informal settlers in the country (42%) due to the lack of affordable housing in the cities
  • Middle-class workers have stable jobs (mostly salaried) in wholesale and retail trade, transportation, communication, and government sectors
  • In Metro Manila and other traffic-congested cities, most cars are owned by the middle class
  • Less dependent on the government, shifting away from using public services and leaning towards private ones, especially in the case of transportation, healthcare, and education
• Strategies for Working with Children in Poverty


  • Improve thinking and language skills
  • Understand that students from impoverished families are not likely to have access to the same resources as those from middle-income families
  • Don't overdiscipline
  • Make student motivation a high priority
  • Think about ways to support and collaborate with parents
  • Look for ways to involve talented people from impoverished communities
  • Observe the strengths of children from low-income backgrounds
• Ethnicity


  Shared pattern of characteristics such as cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language
• Race


  Socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits
• Minority group


  Group of people who have been socially disadvantaged - not always a minority in actual numbers
• Issues related to Minority Groups


  • Prejudice
  • Racism
  • Discrimination
  • Inequality
  • Bias
  • Stereotype
• Multicultural Education


  Education that values diversity and includes the perspectives of a variety of cultural groups
• Components of Multicultural Education


  • School staff's attitudes, beliefs, and actions
  • The curriculum
  • Instructional materials
  • School culture and the hidden curriculum
  • Counseling program
• Empowerment


  Providing people with intellectual and coping skills to succeed and make this a more just world
• Culturally Relevant Teaching


  Seeks to make connections with the learner's cultural background
• Funds of Knowledge Approach


  Teachers visit students' households to develop social relationships with their students' family members to learn more about their cultural and ethnic background so that they can incorporate this knowledge into their teaching
• Issues-Centered Approach


  Students are taught to systematically examine issues that involve equity and social justice
• Strategies for Improving Relationships among Children from Different Ethnic Groups


  • The jigsaw classroom
  • Positive personal contact with others from different cultural backgrounds
  • Perspective taking
  • Technology connections with students around the world
  • Reducing bias
  • Increasing tolerance
  • The school and community as a team
• Strategies for Multicultural Education


  • Be sensitive to racist content in materials and classroom interactions
  • Learn more about different ethnic groups
  • Be aware of students' ethnic attitudes
  • Use trade books, films, videotapes, and recordings to portray ethnic perspectives
  • Take into account your students' developmental status when you select various cultural materials
  • Perceive all students in positive ways and have high expectations for them regardless of their ethnicity
  • Recognize that most parents, regardless of their ethnicity, are interested in their children's education and want them to succeed in school
• Culturally Relevant Pedagogy


  • Students must experience academic success
  • Students must develop/maintain their cultural competence
  • Students must develop a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo
• Self-Agency Strand


  • Academic self-efficacy
  • Behavioral self-control
  • Academic self-determination
• Relationship Strand


  • Caring teacher–student relationships
  • Effective peer relations
  • Effective home–school relationships
• Information-Processing Approach


  A cognitive approach in which people manipulate, monitor, and strategize information; central to this approach are the cognitive processes of memory and thinking
• The capacity for processing information gradually develops, so as knowledge & skills become increasingly complex
• Cognitive Resources


  Capacity and speed of processing information, which increase over time from childhood to adulthood
• Mechanisms of Change on Individual's Cognitive Skills (by Robert Siegler, 1998)


  • Encoding (process by which information gets into memory)
  • Automaticity (ability to process information with little or no effort)
  • Strategy Construction (creation of new procedure for processing information)
• Metacognition


  Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing"
• The Nature of the Information-Processing Approach


  • Information, Memory, and Thinking
  • Cognitive Resources, Capacity, and Speed of Processing Information
  • Mechanisms of Change
• Attention


  The focusing of mental resources, which improves cognitive processing for many tasks
• Types of Attention


  • Selective Attention (focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant)
  • Divided Attention (concentrating on more than one activity at a time)
  • Sustained Attention (maintaining attention over an extended period of time; also called as vigilance)
  • Executive Attention (involves action planning, allocating attention goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances)
• Memory


  Retention of information over time
• Processes of Memory


  • Encoding (getting information into memory)
  • Storage (retaining information over time)
  • Retrieval (taking information out of the storage)
• Processes of Encoding


  • Rehearsal (conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time it stays in memory)
  • Levels of Processing Theory (theory which processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory)
  • Elaboration (extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding)
  • Constructing images (when we construct an image of something we elaborating the information)
  • Organization (students organize information when they are encoding it, their memory benefits)
  • Chunking (grouping "higher-order" units that can be remembered as single units)
• Types of Memory Storage


  • Sensory Memory (holds information from the world in its original form for only an instant)
  • Short-term Memory (limited-capacity memory system, in which information is retained at least 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer)
  • Memory Span (the number of digits an individual can report back without error in single presentation)
  • Long-term Memory (holds enormous amounts of information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion)
  • Working Memory (a 3-part system that holds information temporarily as a person performs a task)
• Components of Working Memory


  • Phonological loop (specialized to briefly store speech-based information about the sounds of language)
  • Visuospatial working memory (stores visual and spatial information, including information about the appearance and location of objects)
  • Central executive (coordinates the other two components and controls attention)
• Chunking


  Grouping "higher-order" units that can be remembered as single units