4. Evolutionary explanations of human aggression

• Evolution - AO1


  - First theorised by Charles Darwin - 'the origin of species'

  - the process by which different kinds of living organism are believed to have developed from earlier forms during the history of the earth.
• Cuckoldry - AO1


  - having to raise an offspring that is not their own

  - Men face the threat of cuckoldry

  - Wate of their resources because it contributes to the survival of a rival genes

  - Leaves the father with fewer recourses to invest in future offspring
• Men in the past who were able to avoid cuckoldry were more successful reproduce - AO1

  - Psychological mechanisms have evolved to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours

  e.g. Sexual jealousy

  - These mechanisms drive the aggressive mate retention strategies men use to keep their partners and prevent them from staying

  - There were adaptive in our evolutionary history
• Two major mate retention strategies

  - Identifies by Wilson and Daly (1996)

  - Direct guarding - a man vigilance over a partner's behaviour - checking what they are seeing or looking at their phone

  - Negative inducements - e.g threats of consequences for infidelity like suicide
• Wilson et al (1995) - Findings

  - Mate retention strategies were in partners were twice as likely to suffer physical violence at their hands

  - 73% of these of women required medical attention

  - 53% - said they feared for their lives

  - Men who use guarding or negative reinforcements were more likely to use physical violence against partners.
• Shackelford et al (2005) - AO1


  - sturdies inmate partner violence in heterosexual couples
• Shackelford et al (2005) - Procedure - AO1


  - Men and women in 107 married couples completed difference questionaries

  All had been married 1 year or less

  - Men completed the Mate Retentions Inventory which assessed male retention behaviours in various categories e.g. direct guarding

  - Women completed the Spouse Influence Report which measured the extent of their partners violence's in their relationship
• Shackelford et al (2005) - Findings - AO1


  - Strong positive correlation between men's reports or their mate retention strategies and women's reports of partner physcial violence

  - Men who used guarding or negative inducements were more likely to use physical violence against partners

  - According to researchers these retention behaviours reliably predicted husbands use of violence against wives
• Evolutionary explanation of bullying - AO1

  - Bullying occurs due to power imbalance

  More powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against weaker person

  - Bullying traditionaly viewed maladaptive behaviour - the result of poor social skills or child abuse

  - However, evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival - promoting their own health and creating new opportunities for reproduction
• Volk et al (2012)


  - Argues that characteristics associated with male bullying behaviour are attractive to females

  - This is because It suggests dominance, acquisition of recourses and strength in males

  Potential of warding off potential rivals
• Female bullying - AO1

  - takes place within a relationship and is a method of controlling a partner

  - Women use bullying behaviour to secure their partners fidelity, so they continue to provide recourses for future offspring

  - Behaviour naturally selected for because or enhanced reproductive success
• Research support for aggression and sexual jealousy - 😊


  - Research demonstrates that mate retention strategies are associated with sexual jealousy and aggression

  - Study by Shackelford et al (2005) is a dramatic example

  - Strategies such as direct guarding and negative inducements are overwhelmingly used by makes against males and females clear link between the risk of infidelity and cuckoldry and aggression

  - Supports predictions derived from evolutionary explanation concerning adaptive value of aggression
• Evolutionally explanations account for gender differences - 😊

  - Common observation that aggression in more common in males than females especially physically aggression.

  - Evolutionary theory explains this

  - Anne Campbell (1999) argues that a female with offspring is motivated to be less aggressive because such behaviour may put child's survival at risk

  - More adaptive strategy would be to use verbal aggression as a means of retaining a partner who provides resources and to avoid life-threating situation involving physical aggression - Buss and Shackford (1997)

  - Explain why women are more likely than men to engage in non-aggressive methods in resolving disputes

  - Ability to explain gender difference is a large strength is evolutionally theory
• Real world application - 😊

  - Evolutionary understanding of bullying can help us derive more effective anti-bullying strategies

  - Rigby (2010) - reviewed several established interventions based on the assumption that bullying is a maladaptive behaviour that can be eradicated by addressing the bully's perceived deficiencies

  - Despite this bullying is stile prevent

  - Evolutionary explanation acknowledges that bullies bully because they stand to gain advantages

  - Makes no sense for them to voluntarily give up power over others without form of compensation

  - Volk et al - argues that anti-bullying interventions need to increase the costs of bullying and rewards for prosocial behaviour

  - Encourage bullies to compete aggressively but fairly in sporting activates

  - Would give them opportunities to display strength and power and some other attractive qualities that wouldn't be present through bullying
• Cultural differences - 🙁

  - The !Kung people of Kalahari have largely negative views on aggressive behaviour

  - From childhood aggressive behaviour is discouraged and therefore rare

  - Those who do engage in aggressive behaviours are awarded a lower status and their reputation with their community is diminished

  - In addition, the Yanomamo of Venezuela and Brazil have been described as the fierce people

  - In their culture aggression is accepted and requires in to order to fain status