GEN BIO

• Science


  A path to gaining knowledge about the natural world
• Study of science


  Includes the body of knowledge that has been collected through scientific inquiry
• Scientists seek to understand the natural world.
• They do this by asking questions, making observations, collecting data, proposing hypotheses, designing experiments, testing their ideas, analyzing results, drawing conclusions, and communicating their findings.
• The process of gathering information is called research.
• Formal sciences. It is the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mathematics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology.
• • Logic

  is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e., the relations that lead to the acceptance of on e proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments.
• • Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science.
• Natural sciences. It is the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science (or biology). 
• Physical sciences is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences.
• Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development, and evolution.
• • Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells).
• The scientific method is the way scientists approach their work.
• 1. Question. The most important thing a scientist can do is to ask questions.
• Hypothesis. With the information collected from background research, the scientist creates a plausible explanation for the question
• Eyepiece or Ocular is what you look through at the top of the microscope. Typically,

  standard eyepieces have a magnifying power of 10x. Optional eyepieces of varying

  powers are available, typically from 5x-30x.
• Eyepiece Tube


  Holds the eyepieces in place above the objective lens
• Binocular microscope heads


  • Incorporate a diopter adjustment ring that allows for the possible inconsistencies of our eyesight in one or both eyes
  • The monocular (single eye usage) microscope does not need a diopter
  • Binocular microscopes also swivel (Interpupillary Adjustment) to allow for different distances between the eyes of different individuals
• Objective Lenses


  • The primary optical lenses on a microscope
  • They range from 4x-100x and typically, include, three, four or five on lens on most microscopes
  • Objectives can be forward or rear-facing
• Nosepiece


  • Houses the objectives
  • The objectives are exposed and are mounted on a rotating turret so that different objectives can be conveniently selected
  • Standard objectives include 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x although different power objectives are available
• Coarse and Fine Focus knobs


  • Used to focus the microscope
  • Increasingly, they are coaxial knobs - that is to say they are built on the same axis with the fine focus knob on the outside
  • Coaxial focus knobs are more convenient since the viewer does not have to grope for a different knob
• Stage


  • Where the specimen to be viewed is placed
  • A mechanical stage is used when working at higher magnifications where delicate movements of the specimen slide are required
• Stage Clips


  • Used when there is no mechanical stage
  • The viewer is required to move the slide manually to view different sections of the specimen
• Aperture


  The hole in the stage through which the base (transmitted) light reaches the stage
• Illuminator


  • The light source for a microscope, typically located in the base of the microscope
  • Most light microscopes use low voltage, halogen bulbs with continuous variable lighting control located within the base
• Condenser


  • Used to collect and focus the light from the illuminator on to the specimen
  • It is located under the stage often in conjunction with an iris diaphragm
• Iris Diaphragm


  • Controls the amount of light reaching the specimen
  • It is located above the condenser and below the stage
  • Most high-quality microscopes include an Abbe condenser with an iris diaphragm
  • Combined, they control both the focus and quantity of light applied to the specimen
• Condenser Focus Knob


  Moves the condenser up or down to control the lighting focus on the specimen
• Chemical Level

  To study the smallest level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks

  of matter: atoms and molecules. The chemical level of organization considers these two

  building blocks as atoms bond to form molecules with three-dimensional structures. All