theory and methods

• Quantitative data is any data that could be represented as numbers and statistics and easily generalized to form a law of behavior
• Quantitative data is collected through methods including structured interviews and questionnaires
• Qualitative data is any verbal data involving opinions and meanings that are collected through methods such as unstructured views, observations and documents
• Primary data


  Data collected firsthand by researcher to perfectly suit the hypothesis of their research
• Secondary data


  Data collected by other researchers and applied to your modern hypotheses
• Key things to be looked at when producing research

  • Reliability
  • Representativeness
  • Generalizability
  • Validity
  • Objectivity
• Hypothetical deductive model


  1. Producing an idea

  2. Turning idea into research

  3. Producing findings
• Research methods


  • Social service surveys
  • Structured interviews
  • Unstructured interviews
  • Semi-structured interviews
  • Participant observation
  • Non-participant observation
  • Experiments
  • Personal documents
  • Official statistics
• Positivists prefer social surveys, structured interviews, experiments and official statistics
• Interpretivists prefer methods that look at social facts
• Social facts


  Aspects of social life that influence and shape an individual's behavior and attitudes
• Examples of social facts

  • Laws
  • Values
  • Ideologies
  • Social structures
• Positivism


  • Assumes society has objective social facts
  • Society exerts influence on large members
  • Prefers quantitative data
  • Quantitative data is objective and macro approach
  • Researchers remain detached and research value free
  • Relies on reliable methods like questionnaires, structured interviews and experiments
• Interpretivism


  • Sees reality as being constructed through the meanings created by individuals
  • Assumes actions are the result of our own meanings, not external forces
  • Prefers qualitative data which is subjective
  • Micro approach focusing on small groups or individuals
  • Researchers should develop rapport and empathy
  • Prefers valid methods like unstructured interviews, ethnography and participant observation
• Theoretical issues to consider in research

  • Validity
  • Representativeness
  • Reliability
  • Objectivity
• Practical issues to consider in research

  • Time available
  • Funding and source
  • Requirements of funding bodies
  • Skills of the researcher
  • Subject matter and research opportunities
• Ethical issues to consider in research

  • Informed consent
  • Confidentiality
  • Privacy
  • Protection from harm
  • Deception
• Consensus theories


  Believe all structures within society act in agreement, without this society would collapse
• Conflict theories


  See institutions in society as conflicting with each other, trying to gain power over the other
• Social action theories


  Believe in the actions of people in context of the meanings that they assign to them and that are shared between these actions and the actions of others
• Characteristics of modern society (1650-1950)


  • Production central to society
  • Heavy capitalism
  • Nuclear family norm
  • Identities built on class and sex
  • Media reflects reality
  • Strong institutions binding people together
• Characteristics of postmodern society (1950 onwards)

  • Service sector and consumption central
  • Declining power of national state
  • Disorganized capitalism
  • Strong institutions have lost influence
  • Diverse and fragmented religion and culture
  • Freedom shapes identities
  • Unwillingness to believe meta-narratives
• Perspectives on sociology of science

  • Positivist - observable external factors influence behavior, use objective empirical methods
  • Popper - focus on falsifiability of research
  • Kuhn - focus on single paradigm
  • Postmodernist - science not completely objective
  • Realist - study unobservable using open systems
• Reliability


  Ability to repeat research and get similar results
• Validity


  Assesses whether research reflects the reality of those being studied
• Objectivity


  Research is free from researcher's personal values and beliefs
• Representativeness


  Sample used accurately represents the proportions of the target population
• Subjectivity


  Researcher's own values and beliefs impact the research and interpretation of data
• Objectivity


  Personal beliefs are independent of subject matter and research
• Positivists argue sociology should be value-free as it uses objective methods
• Marxists and feminists argue sociology cannot be value-free as research should help find solutions to social issues
• New right argue sociology exaggerates the defects of capitalism and ignores the benefits, so it cannot be value-free
• Postmodernists argue there is no such thing as value-free observation, so sociology cannot be a science
• Ways sociology influences social policy

  • Provides awareness of cultural differences
  • Provides self-awareness of social status
  • Changes assumptions
  • Provides theoretical framework for government
  • Provides practical professional knowledge
  • Identifies social problems
  • Provides evidence for policies
  • Identifies consequences of policies
  • Assesses if policies are working
• Influences on social policy making

  • Money available to implement policy
  • Media portrayal of issues
  • Religious organizations' moral frameworks
  • Willingness of powerful to help less powerful
  • Whether topic is considered a problem
• Perspectives on social policies

  • Functionalist - helps contribute to social order
  • Labeling theory - critical of how criminal justice system labels criminals
  • Marxist - hides and justifies exploitation
  • Left realist - inner city crime reduced by social policy
  • Radical feminist - enforces women's subordination
  • Liberal feminist - brought about gender equality
  • New right - against state interference and undermining responsibility