Elizabeth 1

• When was Elizabeth's Reign from and to?

  17 November 1558 - 24 March 1603
• Who were Elizabeth's parents?

  Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII
• Religious Settlement of 1559


  Its initial aims were to make sure that Elizabeth's supremacy was still in place, that she was still head of the church, but nothing else was made clear. Its intentions were to offer religious toleration. Elizabeth's personal religion was unclear, although there is strong evidence that she was a conservative protestant. For example, Elizabeth walked out of a catholic mass in 1558.

  
  

  The settlement reflected Elizabeth's conservatism, to help avoid war.
• Religious Settlement of 1559 - The First Failure


  Elizabeth initially asked for Mary's laws to be repealed, but the Elizabeth's initial attempts at reform were thrown out by parliament, mainly because their were still remnants of a Mary's Catholic council remaining.

  
  

  Elizabeth could have the supremacy she wanted but not via parliament as they wouldn't let her.
• Religious Settlement of 1559 - A Half Hearted Reformation


  "The Supremacy Bill" - It made Elizabeth the "supreme governor" although it was layered with ambiguity as Catholics could say that the pope was more important.
• Act of Uniformity


  1559 - The new Elizabethan Prayer book which was modified from the old one (1552). Litany was removed, vestments were brought back, communion words allowed real presence interpretation. It looked like a mass. It allowed for the best of both words - Catholic and Protestants alike. Bishops were intimidated and were imprisoned.

  
  

  Haigh argues that Elizabeth wanted to pursue radical Protestantism and that she had to accept a half-hearted reformation in order to please the house of lords, who were mainly Catholic. The house of lords put a lot of pressure on Elizabeth, who was "badly frightened" by this experience and this helps to explain the concessions Elizabeth made to the Catholics.
• The Religious Settlement of 1559 - An Unreformed Church?


  The settlement pleased everyone except the extremists. The settlement therefore saw the rise of puritanism - the extreme evangelicals. They regarded the 1559 settlement as unreformed and rejected the church of England.

  
  

  Elizabeth's priority was to create a national anglican church, not to define its position as the true church.

  
  

  This settlement also saw the rise of Presbyterianism, who believed in episcopacy - the removal of bishops. They wanted to completely get rid of the hierarchy, following the Genevan model which only had elders.
• The Visitations of 1559 - Haigh's View


  The visitations (visiting churches, like Ofsted for religion) aimed to impose the supremacy. With this, the book of common prayer and injunctions of 1559 were brought in.

  
  

  Haigh suggested that there was evidence of parishioner recalcitrance [disobedience] and exuberance of radical commissioners, which is a logical approach to take, especially because there was also evidence that parishes were slow to adopt the new settlement.

  
  

  Only 62/152 of priests "seriously tried" to comply with the settlement. This is unsurprising as early Elizabethan parish clergy were recruited under Mary and therefore were Catholic.

  
  

  Overall, Haigh suggests that Elizabeth struggled to implement the settlement.
• The Visitations of 1559 - Guy's View


  Guy suggests that there was evidence that the Marian restoration was fragile and that alters, images and other catholic imposed things were removed with great speed, which indicates that there was a partial nature to the Marian restoration as people were happy to return to the Protestant ways that were part of Edwardian society.

  
  

  Guy suggests that the campaign did not relax until 1570.
• The Visitations - Guy or Haigh?


  Bridger proposed that the 1564 enquiry into the JPs showed that only 1/3 of them could be trusted fully in matters of religion, which is a worry. The fact that the enquiry took place in the first place shows that Elizabeth was worried.

  
  

  The decline in Catholicism was inevitable as by 1590 only 1/4 of the Marian clergy were still alive.

  
  

  Overall, there was a general sense of passive disobedience, and perhaps was a regional sensitive issue rather than widespread discontent.
• The Marriage Question


  Elizabeth had over 60 marriage proposals during her reign. Elizabeth refused to name a successor caused dread and instability, especially amongst her council. This showed her authority.

  
  

  Paget suggested that there was no one she could marry, for there were too many poor political connotations with most of the choices, both domestically and externally.

  
  

  A foreign marriage could lead to a "carpet conquest", a take over from her husband, the same fears they had with Phillip's marriage to Mary. However, a subject of Elizabeth's could be equally as poor a decision as there could be noble jealousy and could lead to an imbalance in the hierarchy.

  
  

  But any marriage Elizabeth made would provide an heir which could carry on the Tudor name and prevent an "invasion of strangers" - foreigners such as Mary Queen of Scots who was next in line which would have returned the country to a catholic ruler which Elizabeth's council would not have wanted.
• Elizabeth's Actions with her marriage

  Elizabeth was very good at playing off the marriage proposals she got which showed her strength. She rejected Phillip II of Spain as well as an Austrian Archduke. She often played up to the people she needed help from to form political alliances.
• Elizabeth's Dangerous Love


  Elizabeth fell in love with Robert Dudley who was a horse keeper - not a particularly strong suitor. He was not well-liked by the other nobles.

  
  

  He was already married but she died under mysterious circumstances in 1560.

  
  

  Dudley was given the title of Earl of Leicester.
• The Succession Issue


  This issue remained unresolved throughout the entirety of Elizabeth's reign.

  
  

  Elizabeth always had a constant fear as she was never secure. A crisis occurred in 1562 as Elizabeth had smallpox. Cecil's strategy was to bring in the Council of Estate where parliament could name the heir. This made Elizabeth livid and she refused to grant Parliaments request in 1563. In total, she refused 60 bills of Parliament, asserting control.

  
  

  Bridger claimed that there was a "permanent political crisis" due to the fact the monarch chooses the religion - cuis region eius religio.
• Context - European Wars of Religion start

  It was a bipolar world - 2 extremes were at play - Missionary Calvinism v Militant Catholicism. Neutrality was becoming harder to maintain.

  The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559 ended the Habsburg-Valois wars.
• Context - France and Scotland

  On December 1557 the Bond of the Lords of the Congregation declared war on Mary Queen of Scots. Henry II pledged war on the Calvinists. There was a potential French invasion to pursue Mary's claim to the English throne.
• Context - France Inner Turmoil

  Henry II died in a jousting accident in July 1559.

  The French War of Religion took place in 1562, with the Guise (Catholic) and Bourbon (Protestant) factional struggle.

  
  

  Catherine Medici, Henry II's wife made sure Mary was protected, especially as she married Mary to Francis II. They declared Elizabeth as illegitimate and sought papal approval for Mary to be made legitimate.
• Doomed French Huguenot Campaign

  August 1563 - The leader of the Huguenot campaign asked for Elizabeth's help at La Havre. Elizabeth was cautious, but Leicester managed to persuade her to help. Through the Treaty of Hampton Court, 6,000 troops were sent along with a £30,000 loan.

  Once peace was restored in France, Elizabeth refused to withdraw her troops, stating that she had taken Le Havre not for religious reasons but to indemnify her for the loss of Calais, which was rightfully hers. The regent of France, Catherine de' Medici sent both Catholic and Huguenot troops against Le Havre, which surrendered on 28 July 1563. Feeling betrayed by the Huguenots, Elizabeth never trusted them again. Calais was eventually lost in the Treaty of Troyes in 1564.
• Context - Militant Catholicism - Spain

  Phillip II, the Spanish King was dogmatic, but he was more worried about France than England. He ruled Spain and was the rightful king of the Netherlands. But while Charles V let the Netherlands do its own thing, while Phillip tried to control the country in the same way as Spain.
• English Fear for the Netherlands


  The Netherlands was key to Elizabeth's trade (of cloth in particular) and prosperity. There was a historical fear of French control in the Netherlands, which would give them a huge amount of influence. Now, however, Spain was feared to take control.
• The 'British' Problem


  Ireland was historically a problem for most monarchs, Henry VII in particular saw rebellions from Ireland. It was paramount to keep an eye on Ireland as the country could be used as a bridgehead for invasions, especially as the Welsh coast was undefended. Generally, the English monarch would rule through the Irish nobilty already in place.
• Gaelic Lords


  Ireland had traditional Irish lords, powerful families that were in charge of ruling Ireland. Such families included the O'Neill's, the Desmond's, the Kildare's and the Osmond's.

  
  

  Elizabeth referred to the Irish as "ravening beasts" to Sidney. She never committed the resources needed to Ireland in order to sustain the efforts made there.

  
  

  Earl Sussex was Chief Governor (the highest position in Ireland) from 1556 to 64, but struggled to keep control.

  
  

  Shane O'Neill was the most powerful noble in Ireland.

  
  

  The Desmond and Kildare families were poised in a conflict against Ormond and Sussex families, leading to a feudal war in Ireland in 1565.

  
  

  The Ormond and Desmond families were both summoned to London, Ormond was pardoned while Desmond was imprisoned.
• Sir Henry Sidney's Governorship and Crisis

  Sussex was replaced as Chief Governor in 1564 as he sided with one of the factions during the feud in Ireland.

  
  

  In June 1566 Elizabeth felt that Ireland could be lost. This was due to an alliance emerging between the O'Neill's and Mary Queen of Scots, along with the Scottish Dukes of Argyll. French aid could potentially expel England from Ireland.

  
  

  In 1567, Shane O'Neill was assassinated.
• Desmond Rebellion 1569


  O'Neill's assassination left a power vacuum in Ireland which led to a revolt. English settlers, in particular, were attacked. The revolt was brutally suppressed by Gilbert, an English General. The resulting attitude was that Elizabeth was feared rather than loved in Ireland, especially as she didn't have control to start with.
• Scotland - Part of a pan Protestant Isles?

  This was Cecil and Council's view - they were concerned and believed further security was needed. There was a sense of catholic conspiracy and threat.

  
  

  Elizabeth needed Scotland in order to help control Ireland. Mary of Guise was regent of Scotland, with Mary Queen of Scots ruling in France.

  
  

  There was a Scottish Rebellion in 1559 against the ruling Guise family. English aid was appealed for, and Elizabeth promised that she would help if they supported England against Ireland. This formed the Treaty of Berwick in 1560. The Treaty of Edinburgh replaced the Auld Alliance with France with a new Anglo-Scottish accord, while maintaining the peace between England and France.
• Scotland - No united reformed Britain

  Mary Queen of Scots returned to Scotland in 1561. Her husband, Francis II of France died when she was 18, leaving her a widower. Elizabeth hoped that her relationship with her cousin would be a harmonious one, especially as she was the divinely ordained monarch.
• Scotland - Chaos and Disintegration

  Lord James Stewart, the father of James IV of Scotland (James I of England) sought English aid in June 1565.

  
  

  Elizabeth flat out refused. She didn't want to be seen as supporting disobedience to the monarch.

  
  

  Mary Queen of Scots was misruling Scotland, causing instability, especially amongst the nobility who were divided.

  
  

  Mary sought to marry Darnley, but this marriage was opposed; she married him but he was found murdered in 1567. Mary then married the Earl of Bothwell.

  
  

  After all the chaos, Mary fled to England.
• Scotland - Elizabeth's Dilemma

  This situation was a nightmare for Elizabeth. She didn't know whether to restore Mary, which would carry on the instability in Scotland or to execute her which would be a violation of rights of a sovereign. If she restored Mary, she would always be a dangerous threat, a thought her council agreed with.

  
  

  In the end, Mary was kept in a Northern English castle, in a prison.
• Attempted Catholic Coup in England, 1569


  The Duke of Norfolk, a powerful noble, planned to marry Mary Queen of Scots. Although this was a conspiracy, it was not treason. It was kept from Elizabeth however, who would not have allowed it. Leicester, Arundel and Pembroke supported the marriage as they felt they were being mistreated by Elizabeth.

  
  

  Elizabeth found out about the plot, and Norfolk confesses and tells the Northern Lords not to rebel.
• Rising of the North, 1569


  It was an unplanned uprising by the great Northern Lords, including the Earls of Northumberland, Westmorland (Percy and Neville) They rose out of desperation, believing it was now or never. Religion was a factor in the rebellion, they used a banner that echoed the pilgrimage of grace.

  
  

  The rising was easily suppressed, not amounting to

  a crisis, despite the perception at the time being that there was. The majority of the northern gentry and nobles aided the crown.

  
  

  The followers of the rising were often there out of deference to their local family or for money. In total, there were 5700 rebels, and they weren't inspired by religion. The borders never rose again as their powerbase was destroyed.
• Rising of the North 1569 - Consequences

  The Catholic church would never be restored by a rebellion. This was the only serious attempt to restore Catholicism under Elizabeth. Catholics were now seen as potential enemies of the realm, making the situation far worse for them, after a decade of being quiescent.

  
  

  Elizabeth believed that a 5th column was emerging - that the Catholics posed an internal threat. However, they did not pose any danger to Elizabeth and they did not need to be persecuted. The Catholics expected that time would help to erode protestant ideas.

  
  

  Elizabeth's anxieties were heightened after this.
• Regnans in Excelsis, 1570

  Regnans in Excelsis ("reigning on high") was a papal bull issued on 25 February 1570 by Pope Pius V declaring "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime", to be a heretic and releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her, even when they had "sworn oaths to her", and excommunicating any that obeyed her orders.

  
  

  This caused a polarised religion in England. It meant that Elizabeth was a legitimate target for any Catholic assassination, and highlighted a loss of control for Elizabeth.
• Permanent Political Crisis


  The vision of a catholic restoration was not a fantasy since Mary Queen of Scots was hanging around like a bad smell.

  
  

  Religion was always that of the monarch - cuis region euis religio.

  
  

  Elizabeth was now vulnerable to assassination.

  
  

  Mary never wavered her claim to the English throne as she was the rightful heir, despite being Catholic. Elizabeth was still unmarried, and the succession was unresolved.

  
  

  Bridger stated that Elizabeth was in a "permanent political crisis"
• 1569 - "Perils, many, great and imminent"


  This was Cecil's memo on the state of the realm at this time.

  
  

  The Catholics were preoccupied, Spain was fighting the Turks, France was fighting amongst themselves.

  
  

  The Bayonne Meeting took place in 1569, with the Duke of Alva (Trusted Spanish Advisor) and Catherine De Medici, the Regent of France.
• Ridolfi Conspiracy, 1571


  This conspiracy aimed to place Mary Queen of Scots on the throne. The plot was hatched and planned by Roberto Ridolfi, an international banker who was able to travel between Brussels, Rome and Madrid to gather support without attracting too much suspicion.

  
  

  About 30 or 40 great lords were said to be involved in the conspiracy, including Norfolk who was subsequently executed in 1572, despite Elizabeth wavering over the decision.

  
  

  Cecil and Walsingham wanted Mary Queen of Scots dead, but Elizabeth wouldn't allow it.
• Blood or Religion?


  Regicide was vehemently abhorrent to Elizabeth.

  
  

  Mary Queen of Scots was an anointed Queen, the question was if she could commit treason in England.

  
  

  Cecil believed that Elizabeth made "errors" and "follies" when it came to what to do with Mary.

  
  

  Elizabeth was curious about \mary and called her "sister." Elizabeth was excited to meet her in 1562, she regarded her as the rightful heir - she confided in William Maitland - Mary Queen of Scots secretary.

  
  

  Blood mattered more to Elizabeth than religion. Mary was not executed until 1587, some 16 years later.

  
  

  Cecil was haunted that Mary Queen of Scots would take the throne.
• Protestant Predestination


  The idea of predestination was based on the ideas of Martin Luther who believed in justification by faith alone and further developed by John Calvin.

  
  

  Calvin believed that God was "no momentary creator" and that he was omnipresent.

  
  

  They believed that the elects and the reprobates would be clear on judgement day.

  
  

  John Foxe, in particular, wrote books about Protestantism.
• Godly Restlessness


  Tensions were emerging from the protestant factions. They believed that further reform was needed.

  
  

  There was a survival of popish remnants that could lead to the revival of popery. A lack of persecution on the protestants part had led to a false sense of security. The church lacked vigour.
• Papal Remnants


  Catholic practices still remained, such as Vestments, Holy days, praying to the East, Private Communion and baptism, bowing to the name of Jesus and the sign of the corss being made in baptism.
• Divided Protestants


  In this pro-Protestant, anti-Catholic environment, the Puritan faction sought to push further reforms on the Church of England.

  
  

  John Foxe and Thomas Norton presented a reform proposal initially drawn up under Edward VI to Parliament. Elizabeth quickly dismissed this proposal, however, insisting on adherence to the 1559 religious settlement.

  
  

  Meanwhile, at Cambridge, professor Thomas Cartwright, a long-time opponent of vestments, offered a series of lectures in 1570 on the Book of Acts in which he called for the abolition of episcopacy and the creation of a presbyterian system of church governance in England.

  
  

  Under these circumstances, in 1572, two London clergymen - Thomas Wilcox and John Field - penned the first classic expression of Puritanism, their Admonition to the Parliament. According to the Admonition, the Puritans had long accepted the Book of Common Prayer, with all its deficiencies, because it promoted the peace and unity of the church.

  
  

  Elizabeth ordered Parliament not to deal with matters of Religion, she didn't want to break the central system that was appealing to most people, however, she did need to beat the Militant catholicism that was emerging, with Jesuits and the Council of Trent making an appearance.