Features of science

• Replicability means that procedures are systematic & well-documented so they can be repeated and outcomes are reproduced- enables testing of reliability (consistency)
• With Empirical Methods, information is gained through direct observation/ experimentation (rather than by intuition or beliefs)- there must be evidence on which base any claims
• Objectivity means that conclusions are based on facts, which are free from bias rather than on personal opinion or expectations- this is supported by having systematic, step-by-step controlled methods with accurate measurement & recording of data
• Theory construction is the process of putting together a general set of principles that explain the facts & observations, these theories are then used to understand & predict the world around us.
• Theory construction (induction)- starts with observations on which a hypothesis is set, gathers evidence, makes theory on what has been gathered, and the theory construction comes after the study has been completed (evidence has already been found)
• Theory construction (deduction)- starts with constructing a theory & the looking for empirical evidence to test whether it is true, the theory construction comes before the study
• Theory Construction Cycle:

  • Setting hypothesis- prediction, based on previous research
  • Testing hypothesis- empirically generated evidence to prove or refute hypotheses
  • Revising theory- using evidence to refine theory & make it more accurate
• Falsifiability= being able to observe a concept
• A concept has to be observable in order to be scientifically measured
• To be scientific, we look for evidence against our theory
• Karl Popper argued that hypotheses should be faslfiable and we should look for evidence to disprove a theory (Hypothetico-Deductive method)
• Null hypothesis- what we start research with & is essentially opposite to the theory, eg "not all swans are white", won't be a significant result
• Alternative hypothesis- is in line with the theory, eg "all swans are white", will be a significant result
• Our research goal should be to find evidence to support the null hypothesis, but the hypothesis must allow for being proved wrong (being falsifiable)
• A paradigm= a shared set of assumptions about the subject matter of a discipline and the methods appropriate to study, (the different approaches within psychology can be seen as different paradigms). Proposed by Thomas Kuhn (1962).
• Paradigm Shift= refers to the tipping point whereby one previously dominant paradigm is overthrown by the weight of conflicting evidence in favour of a new dominant paradigm
• Evaluation- is psychology really a science?

  • Kuhn claims it cannot be; it has no single dominant paradigm unlike other sciences- in psychology there are a number of different paradigms/ approaches to explaining behaviour.
  • Human behaviour cannot be measured objectively- both experimenter bias & demand characteristics compromise validity.
• Evaluation- is psychology really a science?

  • Argued that psychology shouldn't even bother trying to be a "hard science", as it isn't beneficial to the field.
  • The scientific approach is reductionist, simplifying complex phenomena and theories down to basics, thus losing the overall meaning.
  • Science is determinist in its search for casual relationships (ie, if X determines Y). Most psychologists believe in free will, which isn't within the scope of "hard science".
• Aims= a general statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out
• Hypothesis= a formal statement predicting what you expect to find in your results, ensuring the variables are measurable
• Hypothesis should be: operationalised (how you're measuring it), precise & testable
• Directional Hypothesis: states the expectation of the direction of your results (one-tailed)
• Non-directional Hypothesis: predicts a difference but does not predict the direction of the results (two-tailed)
• Independent variable= the variable you manipulate/ change. Must be operationalised
• Dependent variable= the effect of the IV on the other variable is measured. Must be operationalised
• Alternative hypothesis: there will be a significant result.
• Null hypothesis: there won't be a significant result, shows falsifiability.