Cognitive development

• What is piaget's theory

  • Suggest we develop through schemas
  • schemas are cognitive frameworks that organise all our knowledge into mental templates
  • Information can be added to a schema through assimilation
  • If information doesn't fit into the schema a new one can be built through accommodation
  • We have a drive to learn through the desire for equilibrium rather than disequilibrium
  • Disequilibrium is the state of confusion where information from our schema doesn't match up with the world around us
• Strength of piaget's theory - research to support 


  One strength of piaget's theory is that it has research to support. For example Howe et al studied 9-12 year olds discussing movement on ramps. They found that knowledge increased but not all children came to the same conclusions. This supports the idea that children have different ideas on the same schema and how they perceive it. This supports the idea of personalised schema development.
• Strength of piaget's theory - real world applications 


  One strength of piaget's theory is that it has real world applications. For instance, it had a significant impact on teaching and education. By understanding cognitive development, teachers can adopt a teaching strategy based on the needs of the student.
• Limitation of piaget's theory - underestimated the role of others in learning 


  One limitation of piaget's theory is that it underestimates the role of others in learning. He believed that others were only involved as a source of information but not essential. However Vygotsky suggested that we learn from others who are more knowledgeable others that provide scaffolding. This therefore limits piaget's ideas of developing knowledge.
• what are piaget's stages

  1. Sensorimotor stage
  2. Preoperational stage
  3. concrete operational stage
  4. formal operational stage
• What is the sensorimotor stage

  Between ages of 0-2 yrs old

  Babies interact with the world using physical sensations

  Object permanence develops at 8 months
• What is object permanence 


  This is the idea that an object continues to exist even when it is not visible
• Strength of sensorimotor stage - research to support 


  One strength is that there is research to support. For instance, piaget investigated object permanence in 7 month olds. The child would be playing with an object and then it would be taken away and placed under a blanket in front of them. They found that the infant did not try and grab the object. This supports the idea that object permanence doesn't begin until 8 months.
• Limitation of piaget - can be criticised for conflating competence and performance


  One limitation is that it can be criticised for conflating competence and performance. For example, Bower and wishart used infrared cameras to observe whether an infant reached for an object while the lights were off. They found that objects as young as 4 months reached for the object which suggests that object permanence occurs much younger than 8 months. This means that piaget's study lacked internal validity because it could've been measuring physical ability rather than object permanence.
• what is the preoperational stage

  Between the age of 2-7 years old

  Children between this age are egocentric
• what is egocentric 


  This is when they believe that everyone sees things as they do.

  They are unable to see things from another's perspective.
• strength of the preoperational stage - research to support

  One strength of the preoperational stage is that it has research to support. For example, the 3 mountains study. In this study a child was asked what they could see when they sat in front of 3 mountains. The 4 year old could explain what they could see but when asked what the researcher across from them could see from their perspective the child just repeated what they had seen. While the 7 year old could describe what they and the researcher could see. This supports the idea that children between the age of 2 and 7 are egocentric.
• Limitation of preoperational stage - other research contradicted it 


  One limitation is the other research contradict it for example Hughes. Young children had to hide a doll from two police dolls. They found that 3 1/2 year olds could hide the doll from one police doll and children as young as 4 could hide the doll from two police dolls 90% at the time. This demonstrates that piaget had underestimated the age which children developed these skills. This suggests that even some children were not egocentric limiting the replicability of piaget's research
• what is the concrete operational stage 


  Between the age of 7-11 years old

  At this stage children are unable to understand the idea of conservation.
• Strength of concrete operational stage - research to support 


  One strength of the concrete operational stage is that there is research to support. In a study children were able to idenotify that there were the same number of counters in two rows while they were the same length. However when the counters were spread apart, the child was unable to identify that there were the same number of counters in each row because one was longer than the other. This therefore supports the idea that children aged 7-11 years old do not understand the idea of conservation.
• Limitation of Piaget‘s study - methodology flaws 


  One limitation is that there may be methodology flaws. For instance, Mcgarrigle and Donaldson recreated Piagets study but with a “naughty teddy” that messed up the counters. They found that 62% said that there were the same number of counters. Therefore limiting the concept of conservation.
• What is the formal operational stage 


  Between 11-adulthood

  They can hold abstract ideas in their head without seeing physical objects in front of them. They are able to use systematic reasoning to reach a conclusion.
• Strength of formal operational stage - research to support 


  One strength of the formal operational stage is that there is research to support. For example, in a study a pendulum problem was used to test whether children could devise an experiment to test 3 variables of the pendulum. The findings supported Piagets theory.
• Limitation of the pendulum study

  Dansen claimed that only a third of adults ever reach this stage and even then not during adolescents.
• Vygotsky’s theory

  • Believed that cognitive development relies on the greater skill of others called ‘more knowledgeable others’
  • The MKO provide them with support via scaffolding through the zone of proximal development
• What is scaffolding 


  This is support provided by the MKO which allows children to reach successes that they wouldn’t be able to alone
• What is the zone of proximal development 


  This is the gap between what a child can already achieve on their own and what they can’t yet achieve.
• Strength of vygotsky’s theory - research to support

  One strength of vygotskys theory is that there is research to support. For example, Roazzi and Bayant got children aged 4-5 years old to estimate the number of sweets in a box. Children were split into two conditions: in one condition they worked alone and in the other they worked with an older child who provided strategies for estimating. They found children in condition 2 were more successful in estimating the number of sweets in a box because they had a more knowledgeable other who could provide scaffolding for a better chance of success
• Strength of vygotsky’s theory - real world applications 


  One strength of vygotsky’s theory is that it has real world applications for example it has been widely influential in education. In schools TA’s can provide scaffolding to support children to reach correct answers. Alborz et al ‘09 reviwed TA’s and found that they were more effective when trained to scaffold. This therefore supports vygotskys theory because TA’s act as a more knowledgeable other who supports children to reach successes that they wouldn’t be able to alone.
• Limitation of vygotskys theory - social constructivism may not be universal 


  One limitation of vygotskys theory is that social constructivism may not be universal. For example, Howe et al found that children learn in different ways. The researchers found that the childrens level of knowledge increased after the discussion. However, the children had not picked up the same knowledge so even when children experience the same interaction they don’t necessarily have the same level of cognitive developmen. Showing that his theory doesn’t fully explain development for different children
• What is baillaregeon’s theory

  • Investigated issues with Piaget research by investigating violations of expectations with magic shows
  • believed infants are born with a physical reasoning system
• What are VOE’S 


  Violations of expectations are impossible events
• Baillargeon magic show

  Baillargeon investigated VOE’S with magic shows to see whether infants actually had object permanence. This is based on the idea that infants will show surprise when witnessing an impossible event. For example, in one study infants were shown a large or small carrot moving along a track behind a screen with a window. they should be able to see the large carrot but not the small. They found infants as young as 3 1/2 months showed surprise when they didnt see the large carot in the window. This shows that object permanence occurs much younger than 8 months .
• Strength of baillargeons theory - provides more logical explanation than Piaget 


  One strength of Baillargeons theory is that it provides a more logical explanation than Piaget. For example, Piaget lacks internal validity by being criticised for conflating competence and performance. this is because Piaget may have measured physical ability rather than object permanence. Baillargeon measured facial expression to determine whether infants understood object permanenc. This is more realistic because it has been found that object permanence occurs earlier than Piaget thought
• limitation of baillargeon - lacks validity 


  One limitation of baillargeons theory is that it lacks validity. This is because it is based on facial expressions and whether infants looked longer. Babies behaviour is highly subjective and it was inferred that babies understood object permanence by looking longer when it actually may not. This is because babies are unpredictable. therefore we cannot tell exactly why the infants look longer.
• Strength of baillargeon - research to support

  One strength of baillargeons theory is that it has research to support. For example, Hespos and van Marie suggested that knowledge of basic physical properties is universal. This means that it is an innate concept which becomes increasingly complex as we develop. Therefore this supports Baillargeons theory of physical reasoning system.
• What is Selmans perspective taking

  The ability to adopt another persons perspective and understand their thoughts and feelings in relation to your own
• What are the levels of perspective taking

  1. undifferentiated perspective taking
  2. social informational perspective taking
  3. self reflective perspective taking
  4. third party perspective taking
  5. societal perspective taking
• What is undifferentiated perspective taking 


  Child cannot differentiate another persons perspective
• What is social informational perspective taking

  Recognises others have very perspectives but the child’s perspective is the only valid one
• What is self reflective perspective taking 


  Considers their own feelings and those of others involved in the situation. they understand that peoples perspectives are affected by other situations of feelings
• What is third party perspective taking 


  Look at multiple perspectives at the same time
• What is societal perspective taking

  Can think about issues of social justice
• Strength of selmans perspective taking - research to support

  One strength of someone’s perspective taking is that there is research to support. for example someone found significant positive correlations between age and ability to consider different perspective. this means that as children get older the perspectives increase proportionally there for supporting Selmans ideas
• Limitation of Selmans perspective taking - mixed/conflicting research 


  One limitation of salmon is that it has mixed/conflicting research support for example buijezn and Valkenburg found a negative correlation between age, perspective taking and coercive behaviour, suggest of the development of prosocial behaviour. But gasser and Keller found bullies displayed antisocial behaviour but could still see different perspectives therefore limiting sellers ideas.