Addiction

• what is addiction 


  A disorder where individuals take a substance or engage in an experience which is pleasurable at first but eventually becomes compulsive with harmful negative consequences.
• what is dependance 


  physical and psychological need to keep using or experiencing an addictive stimuli.
• what is tolerance 


  More of an addictive stimuli's required to receive the same effects
• what are withdrawal symptoms 


  a set of symptoms that develop when a person abstains from drug use
• What are risk factors for an addiction

  an internal or external influence that increases the chance of someone trying drugs or engaging in addictive behaviors.
• what are the risk factors for addiction

  • genetic vulnerability
  • genetic mechanisms
  • stress
  • personality
  • family influences
  • peers
• What is genetic vulnerability


  inherited characteristics passed on from biological parents which make developing an addiction more likely.
• strength of genetic vulnerability - research to support

  One strength of genetic vulnerability as a risk factor for developing addiction is a has research support. For example. kendler et al used adoption studies of adults whose biological parents suffered from an addiction. They found that these people had a significantly greater risk of developing an addiction at 8.6% compared to adults who had been adopted from non addictive biological parents at 4.2%. this is evidence to support the role of genetic vulnerability as a risk factor for addiction.
• what are the genetic mechanisms

  • D2 receptors
  • Enzyme CYP2A6
• Genetic mechanisms - D2 receptors

  abnormally low levels of D2 receptors thought to be involved in addiction. Fewer receptors means less dopamine activity so using the drug as a way of compensating for this.
• Genetic mechanisms - Enzyme CYP2A6


  some individuals are able to metabolize certain substances linked to addiction. Individuals with the dully functioning enzyme are at greater risk of developing an addiction.
• what is stress as a risk factor 


  Increased risk to developing an addiction is associated with periods of schronic, long lasting stress and traumatic life events in childhood.
• limitation of stress as a risk factor - issue with cause and effect 


  One limitation of stress as a risk factor is the issue with cause and effect. For example, many studies have shown a positive correlation between stressful experiences and addictive related behaviours. However, many addictions can create greater stress levels because of their effects on your lifestyle. We cannot tell if stress causes an addiction or is an effect of it. Therefore we cannot conclude stress as a significant risk factor based on correlational research alone.
• personality as a risk factor

  There is no such thing as an addictive personality but certain personality traits can be linked to an addiction. The strongest correlation has been found between addiction and antisocial personality disorder.
• limitation of personality as a risk factor - reductionist 


  One limitation of personality as a risk factor for addiction is that it is a reductionist. For example, the possession of certain personality traits does not automatically mean that an addiction will occur, it is merely a predisposition. There are lots of other factors involved that could influence behaviour therefore personality as a risk factor is a reductionist.
• Limitation of personality as a risk factor - incomplete explanation 


  Evidence suggests that certain traits have predictive validity with regard to addictive behaviour. however this research only indicates the likelihood and cannot fully explain the mechanisms or the cause underlying the behaviour. Therefore this is an incomplete explanation.
• What are family influences as a risk factor

  Perceived parental approval is the most reliable risk factor. This is when adolescents believe that their parents have a positive attitude towards a drug or addictive behaviour so increases the chances that they will try it.

  Addiction can be learnt through social learning theory which is where a child observes their parents participate in addictive behaviours and later imitate this behaviour.
• strength of family influences - research to support

  One strength of family influences as a risk factor for addiction is that it has research to support. For example, Livingston et al found that final year high school students who were allowed to drink were more likely to excessively drink while away at college the following year. This is because they had perceived parental approval.
• limitation of family influences - not certain that if a child observes a behaviour they will imitate it. 


  One limitation of family influences is that it is not certain that if an individual observes a behaviour they will then imitate it. There are mediational cognitive factors that affect whether a child will imitate or not. This means that motivations to imitate a behaviour are based on other factors which may counteract family influences.
• limitation of family influences - individual differences 


  One limitation of family influences is that there are individual differences. For instance, the influence of the family will depend on the age and the strength of relationships for an individual. It may be that at a younger age the influence of the family to participate or abstain from addictive behaviours is greater than for an older individual.
• what is peers as a risk factor

  Peers act as influential role models who introduce or peer pressure addictive related behaviours. Peers are highly influential because acceptance from the group is desirable so they will be more likely to adopt the behaviours of the group.
• strength of peers - research to support

  One strength of peers as a risk factor is that there is research to support. For example, o'connell suggested that peers influence an at risk adolescents attitudes on alcohol. These eers provide more opportunities to use alcohol and then the individual overestimates the amounts that their friends drink and so end up drinking more just to keep up.
• Limitation of peers - difficult to determine the level of influence 


  One limitation of peers as a risk factor is that it is difficult to measure the level of influence that they have over an individual.
• limitation of peers - likely to be more of an influence in adolescents


  one limitation of peers as a risk factor is that it is more likely to influence behaviours of an individual during their adolescence
• explanations for a nicotine addiction

  • brain neurochemistry
  • social learning theory
• Brain neurochemistry as an explanation for nicotine addiction

  Nicotine imitates the action of acetylcholine so binds to receptors exciting the neuron. This activates the reward pathways that release dopamine which produces pleasure. When people become desensitised they experience withdrawal symptoms so to avoid this they smoke to avoid withdrawal.
• strength of neurochemical explanation for nicotine addiction - research to support

  one strength of a neurochemical explanation for addiction is that there is research to support. For example Mcevoy did an indirect study with humans where he studied smoking behaviour in people with schizophrenia who were taking the drug haloperidol. This is a dopamine antagonist which blocks the dopamine receptors. They found that people taking this drug showed a significant increase in smoking because they wanted to receive the same dopamine hit through reward pathways that their drug was making difficult.
• Limitation of neurochemistry explanation - doesn't account for other factors 


  One limitation of neurochemistry as an explanation for addiction is that it doesn't account for other factors. For instance, Won Choi suggested that adolescents who were not committed to abstaining either had friends who smoked or believed that they were underachieving at school. These factors are social and are not related to brain neurochemistry. The neurochemical explanation for nicotine addiction may therefore be a simplified explanation because it fails to consider other factors. therefore it's a reductionist
• strength of neurochemical explanation for nicotine addiction - practical applications 


  One strength of the neurochemical explanation for a nicotine addiction is that it has practical applications. for instance, it has led to the effective treatment of a nicotine addiction through nicotine replacement therapy. NRT are agonists which aim to replace the effects of nicotine by mimicking the effects and reducing the withdrawal symptoms.
• Limitation of neurochemical explanation - biological determinist 


  one limitation is that it is biologically determinist. for instance, it suggests we become addicted to nicotine because of a chemical event in the brain involving dopamine reward pathways that are beyond our control. This suggests a nicotine addiction is inevitable in someone who starts smoking. However Shiffman et al studied individuals who smoke approx 5 A DAY and experience no withdrawal symptoms when abstaining. This suggests that some smokers find it easier to stop than others and a nicotine addiction is not inevitable.
• Learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction

  SLT + Classical conditioning (cue reactivity) + operant conditioning = addiction
• Social learning theory - nicotine addiction

  A young person will start smoking because their friends or family smoke. This is because they are the role models to that individual. A young person will imitate the behaviour of smoking because of a vicarious reinforcement. For instance, if they see friends getting popular or parents being successful they will want to smoke in order to achieve the same thing. They also want to fit in and be accepted by their friends so smoke to not be rejected by the group.
• Classical conditioning (cue reactivity) - nicotine addiction

  When someone smokes they associate the rewarding effects of nicotine such as dopamine hits through reward pathways with the enjoyment of hanging out with friends while they all smoke.

  hanging out with friends (ucs) = enjoyment (ucr)

  smoking(ns) + hanging out with friends (ucs) = enjoyment (ucr)

  smoking (cs) = enjoyment (cr)
• operant conditioning - nicotine addiction

  positive reinforcement:

  When someone smokes they receive immediate rewards through the reward pathways as dopamine hits which produce pleasure

  Negative reinforcement:

  Continuing to smoke avoids the withdrawal symptoms they would feel if they were to stop so they continue to smoke to avoid this.
• strength of learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction - research to support

  One strength of the learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction is that it has research to support. For example, Brynner (1969) found that media images of smoking created perceptions of it being attractive and tough. This supports the idea of slt as an explanation for nicotine addiction because if people are seeing role models smoking they will want to smoke too.
• strength of learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction - research to support

  One strength of the learning theory explanation for a nicotine addiction is that it has research to support. For example, Levin et al (2010) used rats who self-administered doses of nicotine through licking a waterspout. They found that the rats were constantly licking the waterspout which supports operant conditioning as an explanation for addiction. This is because they were positively reinforced by being rewarded with a dopamine hit therefore making the behavior more likely to occur in the future
• limitation of levin et al - uses animals 


  One limitation of levin et al is that there are issues with using animals. For instance, rats brains and their dopamine/reward pathways might not be as complex as humans. Therefore we cannot extrapolate findings from animals to humans.
• strength of learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction - research to support

  One strength of the learning theory explanation for a nicotine addiction is that it has research to support. For example, carter and tiffin conducted a meta analysis where images of smoking related cues were presented to smokers where they had to self-report cravings. They found that dependant smokers reacted most to smoking related images. This supports classical conditioning as an explanation for addiction because smoking cues caused cravings in smokers.
• limitation of learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction - doesn't consider other factors.

  One limitation of the learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction is that it doesn't consider other factors such as a neurochemical explanation for the addiction. For instance, smokers might develop an addiction as a result of the euphoric feeling that people experience from dopamine hits through reward pathways and then continuing to smoke to avoid negative withdrawal symptoms.
• strength of learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction - practical applications 


  One strength of learning theory explanation for nicotine addiction is that it has practical applications. For example it has led to the effective treatment of a nicotine addiction through aversion therapy or covert sensitisation.