Operant conditioning is a type of learning whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will be performed in the future. It proposes that an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour that has a desirable consequence or that will enable it to avoid undesirable consequences.
Unlike classical conditioning which involves involuntary, reflexive process. Operant conditioning involves a voluntary response.
The three-phase model of operant conditioning has three parts that occur in a specific sequence;
Antecedent (A) a stimulus that occurs before the behaviour
The behaviour(B): that occurs due to the antecedent
The consequence (C) to the behaviour
Reinforcement is a process in which a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows. This may involve using a positive stimulus or removing a negative stimulus to strengthen or increase the frequency/likelihood of a response that it follows
a reinforcer is any stimulus (reward) that strengthens or increases the frequency /likelihood of a response/behaviour that follows it
Positive reinforcement: is the adding of a desirable consequence following a response. This is known as positive reinforcement because it is the adding of a pleasant/desirable stimulus. Positive reinforcement strengthens behaviour because it adds a pleasant/desirable experience.
A positive reinforcer is always given and it is a any stimulus that strengthens/increases the frequency/likelihood of a response occurring
Negative reinforcement: is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a response. Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.
A negative reinforcer is any unpleasant stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens the likelihood of a desiredresponse
Punishment is the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response, or the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response. The punishment weakens the response or decreases the probability of that response occurring again over time
Positive punishment: involves the addition of an unpleasant stimulus that will decrease/ weaken the likelihood of an undesirable behaviour occurring again
Negative punishment involves the removal of a desirable consequence thereby decreasing/weakening the likelihood of an undesirable behaviour occurring again
Reinforcement schedules can be divided into two broad categories: continuous schedules and partial schedules
In a continuous schedule, every instance of a desired behaviour is reinforced, whereas partial schedules only reinforce the desired behaviour occasionally.
Partial reinforcement schedules are described as either fixed or variable, and as either interval or ratio.
Combinations of these four descriptors yield four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, and variable-interval.
a schedule of reinforcement is a program for giving reinforcement, specifically the frequency and manner in which the desired response is reinforced. The schedule that is used will influence the speed of learning and strength of the learnt response.
Continuous reinforcement
In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every single time after the desired behaviour
Due to the behaviour reinforced every time, the association is easy to make and learning occurs quickly. However, this also means that extinction occurs quickly after reinforcement is no longe provided
We have come to expect our behaviour to be reinforced every time it is performed and quickly grow discouraged if not
Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement schedules
Unlike continuous schedules partial schedules only reinforce the desired behaviouroccasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower learning since its initially more difficult to make the association between behaviour and reinforcements
However, partial schedules also produce behaviour that is more resistant to extinction. Organisms are tempted to persist in their behaviour in hopes that they will eventually be revealed.
Fixed schedule
in a fixed schedule, the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging. The schedule is predictable
Variable schedule
The number of responses or amount of time betweenreinforcement changes randomly . The schedule is unpredictable
Ratio schedule
Ratio reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses have been emitted
Interval schedule
Interval schedules involve reinforcing a behaviour after a period of time has passed
Resistance to extinction refers to how long a behaviour continues to be displayed even after it is no longer being reinforced. A response high in resistance to extinction will take a longer time to become completely extinct.
In general, schedules that reinforce unpredictably are more resistant to extinction.
Therefore, the variable-ratio schedule is more resistant to extinction than the fixed-ratio schedule.
The variable-interval schedule is more resistant to extinction than the fixed-interval schedule as long as the average intervals are similar.
In the fixed-ratio schedule, resistance to extinction increases as the ratioincreases. In the fixed-interval schedule, resistance to extinction increases as the interval lengthens in time.
Out of the four types of partial reinforcement schedules, the variable-ratio is the schedule most resistant to extinction. This can help to explain addiction to gambling.
Token economies are a form of behaviour modification using specific types of reinforcers to influence behaviour change. A tokens economy is a setting in which an individual receives tokens(primary reinforcers) for desired behaviours.
These tokens can then be collected and exchanged for other reinforcers in the form of actual or real rewards ( Secondary reinforcers)
Tokens can be withdrawn in many cases and can be fined in certain number of tokens for inappropriate behaviour