Aggression

• Aggression


  Only form of behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being, intent to harm, outside the rules of the game
• Assertion

  No intent to harm but behaviour is directed towards another, controlled, within the rules of the game
• Instrumental aggression


  Has an intent to harm but is in the rules of the game, such as boxing or rugby
• Strategies to prevent aggression and promote assertion

  players- practice anxiety management, self-talk, practice assertion, walk-away, channel aggression, set non-aggressive goals

  coaches- higher fines, more punishment, reinforce positive role models, sub player

  officials- higher fines, cards, sinbins, talk to aggressive players, consistent rules, immediate sanctions
• Instinct theory (aggression)

  Born with innate aggression, everyone has it, aggression builds up and if we are provoked we will act aggressively

  released aggression- cathartic release

  criticisms- assumes all will calm down after aggressive act, aggression is spontaneous, aggression varies in different sports, aggression is learned behaviour
• frustration Aggression Hypothesis (interactionist)


  Drive to succeed but it is stopped causing frustration, frustration always causes aggression, learned from others

  criticisms- not all frustration leads to aggression, doesn't take into account situation factors, frustration is learned
• Aggressive Cue Hypothesis(Berkowitz)

  Updated frustration-aggression hypothesis - performer has goal blocked, their arousal levels increase, they experience frustration, leads to them being ready for an aggressive act but will only happen if learned cues are present. Aggression is caused by a learned trigger, only occurs if aggressive cues are present, frustration increases arousal

  criticisms- better theory as it doesn't rely on innate characteristics, takes into account learning, aggression only takes place with cues
• Social learning theory (aggression)


  Learned through watching and copying, reinforcement makes it more likely to be copied, overserve-identify-copy, socialisation

  criticisms- aggressive behaviours aren't always copied, doesn't take into account trait approaches, aggression is seen in genes
• Definition of aggression: is when an individual purposefully harms or injures their opponent. It is outside the rules, hostile and reactive.
• Definition of assertion: is often confused with aggression. This is when an individual plays hard, but within the rules, perhaps using more effort than usual, but there is no intention to harm the opposition.
• Causes of aggression:

  o   Playing badly

  o   Feeling that team mates are not trying

  o   Disagreement with officials decisions

  o   Provocation by opponent/crowd

  o   Important game (semi-final/final etc)

  o   Religious/cultural reasons (e.g. Celtics vs Rangers)

  o   Contact sport

  o   Naturally aggressive personality

  o   Social learning

  o   Over-arousal
• 1)     Instinct theory – we have a natural trait/predisposition to be aggressive. It is genetically determined, and we are born with a tendency to defend ourselves, and in sport, our territory. Instinct theorists believe aggression inevitably builds up within us and if we are provoked, we will act aggressively. After aggression à cathartic effect.
• -ves of instinct theory

  -        It doesn’t consider the effects of environment/social learning.

  -        Individuals often experience increased aggression during sporting competition. The instinct approach suggests that as humans we are all genetically determined to behave aggressively, but this isn’t true, some people never behave aggressively.

   
• 1)     Frustration-aggression hypothesis – performer has a drive to achieve a goal but is then stopped from achieving that goal, they experience frustration. According to this theory, frustration always leads to aggression. After the aggressive act, this will have a cathartic effect.
• -ves of frustration-aggression hypothesis

  -        Doesn’t account for a performer who experiences frustration and aggression even when their goal hasn’t been blocked.

  -        Doesn’t account for a performer who has their goals blocked and experience frustration but do not act aggressively.
• Aggressive cue hypothesis (Berkowitz) – this is the updated frustration-aggression hypothesis. States that when a performer has their goal blocked, arousal levels increase, and they experience frustration. This means performer is ready for aggressive act rather than inevitable aggression. It states an aggressive act will only occur if learned cues or triggers are present. For example, aggressive objects such as bats or aggressive contact sports such as rugby/ice hockey are more likely to produce aggressive responses.

   
• 1)     Social learning theory – states that aggression is learned by watching and copying the behaviour of significant others. If aggressive act is reinforced or successful, it is more likely to be copied. It opposes the trait approach to aggression.

   

  Performers may also become aggressive due to socialisation. For example, a footballer observes many of his team mates shouting abuse and acting aggressively towards the ref as they disagree with a penalty call. He joins in to ‘fit in’ with his team mates. Aggression more likely to be copied if model shares similar characteristics.
• -ves of social learning theory

   

  This theory doesn’t take into account any genetic explanations as to why aggression may happen. It discounts trait approach even though there is research to show there may be an aggressive gene in humans.

   

   
• Strategies to control aggression – players

  Use cognitive techniques:

  -        Mental rehearsal

  -        Imagery

  -        Visualisation

  -        Selective attention

  -        Negative thought-stopping

  -        Positive self-talk
• Strategies to control aggression – players

  Use somatic techniques:

  -        Relaxation techniques

  -        Deep breathing

  -        Biofeedback

  -        Count to 10

  -        Walk away

  -        Mantra

  -        Displace/channel aggression into playing harder
• Strategies to control aggression – coach

  -        Praise non-aggressive acts

  -        Highlight non-aggressive role models

  -        Punish aggression (sub/fine etc)

  -        Peer pressure to remind that aggression is unacceptable

  -        Set process and performance goals rather than product goals

  -        Ensure their own behaviour is not aggressive

  -        Give performer responsibility within the team

  -        Ensure performer understands their specific role