HELPFUL REVIEW NOTES

• Kant's reconciliation of rationalism and empiricism in "Critique of Pure Reason"

  Outlining the boundaries of human knowledge, acknowledging both the role of reason and sensory experience in understanding the world
• Sartre's characterization of human freedom


  Absolute and existential, suggesting that individuals are either entirely free or not free at all
• The concept of "condemned to be free"


  Freedom is an inherent aspect of human existence, implying that individuals are burdened with the responsibility of making choices regardless of external influences
• The concept of being "thrown into this world"


  Individuals do not choose their societal and familial contexts, which significantly shape their identities and circumstances
• Kantian ethics


  A deontological ethical theory that emphasizes the inherent value of moral principles and duty, positing that the moral worth of an action lies in its adherence to universal moral laws, rather than consequences or intentions
• Categorical Imperative


  A principle that commands certain actions universally, regardless of personal desires or outcomes, serving as a guideline for determining the moral permissibility of actions
• Duty in Kantian ethics

  Individuals have moral obligations that they are bound to fulfill irrespective of the consequences
• Kantian ethics example


  • A person borrows money from a friend and promises to repay it by a certain date. According to Kantian ethics, it is morally imperative for the person to fulfill their promise (duty), regardless of any potential personal inconvenience or better alternatives
• Deontology


  A broader ethical theory that asserts morality is based on adherence to rules, duties, or principles, and actions are evaluated based on their conformity to these ethical standards
• Deontology


  • Emphasizes the importance of following moral rules or principles, which are often absolute and apply universally, irrespective of context or consequences
  • Prioritizes the intentions behind actions rather than their outcomes, where a morally right action is one performed with good intentions, even if the consequences are unfavorable
• Deontological ethics example


  • A person finds a wallet containing a large sum of money on the street. According to deontological ethics, the person is morally obligated to return the wallet to its rightful owner, regardless of the temptation to keep the money or the potential consequences of returning it
• Universal ethical principles


  Fundamental moral standards or values that are believed to apply universally to all individuals, cultures, and societies, serving as the foundation for ethical decision-making and guiding behavior towards what is considered morally right or good
• Universal ethical principles


  • Universalizability: Ethical principles should be applicable and acceptable in all situations and for all individuals without exception, not contingent upon personal preferences, cultural norms, or situational factors
  • Human Dignity: Often emphasize the inherent worth and dignity of every human being, where actions that respect and promote human dignity are considered morally commendable
• Universal ethical principle example

  • The principle of respect for autonomy in medical ethics, which asserts that individuals have the right to make their own decisions regarding their health and well-being, free from coercion or undue influence
• Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto

  Argues for the abolition of private property as it perpetuates class division and exploitation, believing that private property concentrates wealth and power in the hands of a few, leading to the oppression of the working class
• Aristotle's concept of politics

  Humans are political by nature because they possess the capacity for speech, facilitating communication and community-building, and form societies to fulfill their natural inclination towards social interaction and cooperation
• Microtheoretical approach


  Involves analyzing small units like individuals and their interactions rather than large-scale social structures, focusing on how individuals make decisions or interact in specific social contexts
• Plato's concept of a well-ordered society

  Requires each part to function without disrupting the others, emphasizing harmony and balance, where individuals should prioritize the interests of the community over their own desires to maintain societal harmony
• Primitive communal societies


  Economic activities are centered around communal sharing and collective ownership rather than individual jobs or property, as seen in hunter-gatherer societies practicing communal sharing of resources to ensure survival and cooperation
• Slave society


  Involves a class of slaves and a class of slave owners, with economic activities based on forced labor and ownership of slaves as a means of production, as seen in ancient societies like ancient Rome or Greece
• Feudal society


  Features hierarchical structures with lords, vassals, and serfs, characterized by manorialism and serfdom, as seen in medieval Europe where lords granted land to vassals in exchange for military service, while serfs worked the land in exchange for protection
• Capitalist society


  Involves private ownership of the means of production by the bourgeoisie or property owners, driven by profit motive and marked by economic disparities, where individuals or corporations own businesses and property, and the pursuit of profit guides economic decisions and resource allocation
• Macrotheoretical and microtheoretical approaches

  Macrotheoretical approaches focus on analyzing large-scale social structures and forces that impact societies as a whole, while microtheoretical approaches focus on individual intentions and interactions
• In answering the Decision Dilemma, it's important to consider the ethical and moral implications of each option presented and choose the response that demonstrates sensitivity, empathy, and respect for the individual's autonomy
• Approach to the Decision Dilemma test

  1. Read the dilemma carefully to grasp the situation and the individual's values and concerns

  2. Think about principles like autonomy, generosity, and justice that apply to the situation

  3. Assess each response option, considering its impact on the individual's well-being, autonomy, and values

  4. Select the option that respects the individual's autonomy, provides support and information, and allows them to make an informed choice aligned with their beliefs

  5. Be objective and empathetic, avoiding personal biases, and focusing on the individual's perspective and welfare
• Wishing you all the best of luck on the test! Remember to read each question carefully, consider your options thoughtfully, and apply your understanding of ethical principles with empathy and sensitivity. Trust in your knowledge and intuition, and know that whatever choice you make, it will be a valuable learning experience. Believe in yourselves, and may you all succeed brilliantly!