Feminism

• Feminism


  One of the most successful ideologies in the world. Many goals have been achieved, but there are still plenty of challenges still to address. It aspires to attain equality in all spheres for women across the globe.
• Feminists


  • Have been around for centuries, but it was only with Mary Wollstonecraft and her book 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women' (1792) that we see a coherent case for female rights.
• Waves of feminism


  • First wave (1850s-1940s): focused on legal and political rights, most famously through the suffrage movement.
  • Second wave (1960s-1980s): this focused on the different roles that society expected of women than men. Sex/gender, patriarchy and 'the personal is political' became part of the debate. Betty Friedan's 'The Feminine Mystique' (1963), Kate Millett's 'Sexual Politics' (1970) and Simone de Beauvoir's 'The Second Sex' (1949) were important books of this re-energised movement.
  • Third Wave (1990s)-feminist thinker bell hooks in 'Ain't I a woman' (1981) highlighted how women of different cultures and classes had been left out of the movement so far, as it merely addressed the concerns of the white, middle class woman. Intersectionality was the watchword for this wave.
  • Fourth Wave (2000s) - this is the most recent form of feminism, whereby different forms of inequality are being highlighted. Misogyny in its different forms are being challenged: through sexual harassment cases, online abuse, bank notes and calling out everyday sexism via the #Everyday Sexism Project.
• Sex


  Refers to the biological differences between men and women.
• Gender


  The 'innate characteristics' of men and women; these are constructed by society. Feminists argue that there is no reason why some characteristics are assigned to women/men. Biological differences do not change, yet across cultures there are different expectations placed on men and women based on notions of gender. Gender therefore is a learned behaviour imposed by society.
• Patriarchy


  A society that is dominated by men. Patriarchy is the systematic oppression of women by men and is pervasive throughout society. Feminists argue that women have been oppressed by men in different spheres of society: the state (being denied representation); the household (being confined to 'domesticity'); violence (the 'dark side of family life'; paid work (women are pushed to lower paid/part time roles or 'nurturing roles'); sexuality (Germaine Greer argues that women are forced to repress their sexual desires, yet men are encouraged to explore their sexuality); and culture (media images have reinforced the image of the woman as the 'good wife', or more recently through size 0 models in advertising). Feminists want to overthrow patriarchy and create an equal society. Liberal feminists concentrate on the public sphere, socialists consider the role of capitalism in creating patriarchy and radical feminists view patriarchy as deep rooted and existing in the personal sphere.
• The personal is political

  A slogan devised by the second-wave of feminism, by Carol Hanisch. Feminists distinguish between the 'private' and 'public' sphere. Traditionally what happened in the 'private sphere' (the home) was not a concern of feminists, who fought for equal rights in the 'public' sphere [society). Second wave feminists highlighted that what was happening in the home needed to be addressed too.
• Equality and difference feminism

  Most feminists seek equality for men and women and therefore believe that biological differences do not matter. This was the aim of all feminists up to the 1960s and these feminists campaigned for equality in work, education and politics. Difference feminists (some, not all, radical feminists) argue that men and women are fundamentally different, they value the differences and celebrate women's unique characteristics. They argue that 'equality' feminists suggest that women should adopt male characteristics and therefore deny their own natures. This then alienates women. Some difference feminists go further and argue that female values are superior male ones. Political lesbianism and separation feminists take this further and advocate for a separate society from men, to enable them to reconnect with female values. Difference feminism is controversial amongst feminists as it argued that they undermine the progress that the women's movement has made.
• Intersectionality


  This idea arose in the 1980s, when feminists challenged the notion of the 'white, middle class' nature of the movement. bell hooks argued that women were not a homogeneous whole. Forms of oppression were different for women of colour, or women in working class backgrounds. Therefore intersectionality aimed at widening the view of feminism. bell hooks "Feminism is for everybody".
• Liberal feminism


  • This approach takes the ideas of liberalism (foundational equality, individualism) and applies it to women. If all individuals are of equal worth, then women should be entitled to the same rights as men. Women should have all the freedom they need to be autonomous, rational individuals in society. Liberal feminism argued for: Liberty-women should be free to determine the nature of their own lives; Women's suffrage- once women had the vote, they could reform society. This is political equality; Equality before the law-legal equality. There should be no discrimination against women. They wanted equal access to the public sphere-therefore they were arguing for the liberal idea of equality of opportunity. Liberal feminism is reformist: once the laws have changed in society then the gender imbalance will be removed through democracy. Gender stereotypes will be broken down gradually as girls see women doing traditional 'male' roles. It did not challenge the private sphere. Instead, liberals argued that women should have the opportunity to go to work if they choose. If they choose to stay at home, this is their choice. Therefore they do not argue for a radical restructuring of society. They do not argue that patriarchy is all pervasive, or that there is a systematic oppression of women. Instead, liberal feminists focus on highlighting forms of discrimination and using legal and democratic processes to remove them.
• Radical feminism


  • This is a series of different perspectives on the problems posed by patriarchy. But, they all want to: Destroy the patriarchal society; Revolutionary outlook (though not violence); They are mostly difference feminists, rather than equality feminists. Radical views on patriarchy: Kate Millett's 'Sexual Politics' (1959) criticised the role of men in a patriarchal society. She said men oppressed women in all aspects of life: in the home, in the economy and generally. Their domination is power. They have an entrenched view of their superiority. Germaine Greer in The Female Eunach (1970) argued that men actually hate women and that is the reason for their oppression. Women have been taught to hate themselves which is why they accept this. Women need to be aware of their inferiority, to liberate themselves. Radical responses to patriarchy: Abolition of the nuclear family, replaced by communal living and child rearing; Sexual liberation and escape from the traditional male-female relationships. Political lesbianism; The elimination of biological roles (ie, use technology to free women of their biological enslavement). This is called androgyny - women will no longer need men to reproduce, therefore will be free.
• Cultural feminism


  • These feminists are difference feminists, and some believe that women have superior characteristics to men.
• Socialist feminism


  • Socialist feminists combine their beliefs in Friedrich Engels with feminism. Engels said that women were a key element in capitalism, but had been denied property. Women became the low paid army of labour. Marxist feminists therefore look to the destruction of capitalism as the only way to achieve female liberation. Sheila Rowbotham-a socialist rather than a Marxist, as she rejects the historical determination of Marx. She believes that female oppression has economic roots, but also acknowledges that it comes from the nuclear family and cultural dominance of men. She believes in the economic liberation of women, but believes that they must be truly free from their economic dependence on men. Socialist feminists argue that power must be distributed more evenly in society so that even working class women benefit. There must be a change in culture notable in the education of women.
• Postmodern feminism


  • Postmodernists reject the labels and fixed ideas of previous feminists, instead seeing the position of women as more complex. Women should be given the freedom to make their own choices - either in the home or outside of it. This is true of sexuality too. Each woman is unique and has their own experience of life and must liberate themselves how they see fit. However, battles against political and legal discrimination and the patriarchy continue with postmodern feminists. Intersectionalists such as bell hooks are part of this third wave of feminism. bell hooks argues that all women (including women of colour and women of lower economic status) should be included in the feminist debate. She felt that feminist had ignored the plight of women from different backgrounds who faced multiple layers of discrimination, of which gender was only one. Women faced issues of poverty and racism alongside gender discrimination. She argued that children were forced into unnatural gender distinctions.
• Human nature (sex & gender)


  The debate about human nature for feminists is over sex & gender. Most feminists (equality feminists) believe that biological sex differences are irrelevant and should have no impact in the way that women are treated in society. Men and women are equal in their capabilities, their sex differences are irrelevant and it is only the 'gender' and artificial construction of discrimination in society that makes women inferior. Difference feminists argue that the biological differences between men and women are essential to understanding the inferior status of women in society. They argue that women should value their differences. Some even assert female superiority.
• Differences between men and women are irrelevant. Women are capable of competing equally with men, they have equal brain power.
• "The labor of women in the house certainly, enables men to produce more wealth then they could otherwise could; and in this way women are economic factors in society. But so are hon"
• Radical feminists(HN)


  • Believe gender differences exist in all parts of society and are far deeper than liberals believe them to be. It is also in the home.
  • Want to destroy this and end patriarchy.
  • Believe there should be a cultural revolution.
• Kate Millett


  Argued that the dominance of men was twofold: male superiority in society and secondly in heterosexual relationships. Heterosexual relations are political and part of the patriarchal society, as men are dominant over women. Women therefore needed to find sexual liberation first. She advocated political lesbianism.
• Difference feminists


  • Argue that the nature of women is different to that of men. Some radicals (Firestone) argued that sex differences were key to the oppression of women. She therefore argued that sex differences between men and women should be removed and androgyny should be introduced.
• Inferior status of women(socialist)


  • Due to the system of capitalism. Women, like workers are oppressed.
  • Patriarchal societies give an inferior role to women, they are a cheap source of labour. In the home they are unpaid labour, in the workplace they mostly occupy part-time, low paid roles. They are the first to be removed when there is an economic downturn. They lack job security.
• Socialist feminists


  • Argue for the destruction of capitalism (Marxist feminists) or its modification. Women should get the same working conditions as men.
• Sheila Rowbotham


  • Women have multiple identities, therefore they experience multiple forms of oppression.
  • They argue against a fixed idea of 'woman'. They have a more fluid definition. There are many different experiences of being a woman, just as being a man. They argue there is no such thing as a 'woman' - it is impossible to generalise because women's experiences are so vastly different.
  • She wanted a socialist revolution, not a Marxist one as she believed that this narrowed the view of oppression to the economic field only. She saw oppression in the home. She believed that men must be willing to relinquish their dominance in the home.
  • Women can then define feminism to what it means to themselves.
• bell hooks


  Argued that black women faced a combination of racism and sexism, meaning that they have the lowest status of any group in US society.
• Feminists view society as deeply patriarchal in nature.
• Radical feminists


  • Believe patriarchy is the key characteristic of a modern society. They therefore believe that patriarchy must be destroyed in order to end female oppression. It must be achieved by revolution, by changing cultural values but also by creating a female counter-culture, separate from a male patriarchal society. This is separation from men.
• Liberal feminists


  • See the solution as reform rather than revolution. Patriarchy is a characteristic of society, not the fundamental aspect of it. Therefore society can be made less patriarchal through gradual political, cultural and legal reform.
• Feminists do not have a distinctive theory of the state.
• Feminists see the state

  Under the lens of patriarchy. They are accomplices in the patriarchal system and therefore are part of the male dominated society.
• Socialist feminists


  See the state as an agent of capitalism and therefore is responsible for the exploitation of women. (Rowbotham: the state is the agent of capitalism). Only the extreme modification of capitalism (and therefore the state) will bring about liberation of women.
• Liberal feminists


  Look to the state as the SOLUTION to the problem: if they can improve the position of women by reforming the state, by passing legislation and reforming education. They have made improvements to the state via equality laws, anti-discrimination legislation, laws about domestic violence and legalising abortion and political gains with suffrage.(Simone de Beauvoir: the state reinforces a culture that prevents women from expressing their true identities)
• Radical feminists


  Believe that the problems are so deep rooted that the state is powerless to stop them. The state is part of the PROBLEM: they believe it is a patriarchal institution in itself, therefore needs to be removed. (Kate Millett: the state is an agent of patriarchy, it is part of the problem, not the solution).
• All feminists agree that women are discriminated against in the economic world.
• Women are a form of unpaid labour in the home.
• Women are often paid less than men (gender pay gap).
• The highest level jobs are often reserved for men (glass ceiling).
• Socialist feminists


  • Argue that the source of female oppression is capitalism. Women are the 'reserve army of labour (Engel's idea that women increase economic out-put in the short term but are quickly discarded when not needed).
  • Rowbotham argues for the overthrow of capitalism and replaced by a society where equality is paramount. Women should unite and organise to form a political group and "..move towards the possibility of a truly democratic society in which every human being can be free and equal".
• We can conclude that there is agreement within feminist about women's role in domestic work
• Feminists agree that there are restrictions in women's ability to access well-paid work in comparison to men
• Feminists agree that the economy needs to be organised so women should be motivated and encouraged to access paid economic work in the same way as men