Examm Review

• Perception


  Interpretation and organization of sensory information
• Sensation


  Detection of external stimuli by sensory organs
• Stimuli detected by the body

  • light
  • sound
  • pressure
  • temperature
  • pain
• Sensory receptors


  Include all cellular and sub-cellular components
• Function of sensory receptors

  Convert a stimulus into a change in the membrane potential
• Two types of sensory receptors

  • Specialized Neurons: transmitting signals to the CNS
  • Non-neuronal cells (Glia cells): releasing neurotransmitters
• Types of sensory receptors

  • Mechanoreceptors (physical deformation)
  • Chemoreceptors (solute concentrations, taste buds)
  • Electromagnetic receptors (electromagnetism)
  • Thermoreceptor (temperature, hot and cold)
  • Nociceptors/Pain receptors (pain)
• Transduction


  The process by which sensory receptors convert stimuli into electrical signals
• Amplification


  Strengthening of a sensory signal during transduction
• What happens when you accidentally touch ice

  stimulus (ice) -> thermoreceptor -> changes membrane potential --> trigger action potential -> travel/signals to the brain -> brain will interpret the sensation as a cold substance -> Result: you will move your hand away (reflex)
• Sensory Adaptation


  A phenomenon where the sensory receptor undergo a decrease
• Schizophrenia


  • Neurotransmitters/Chemicals involved: Dopamine and glutamate
  • Symptoms: Hallucinations, Distorted thinking, Delusional, Disorganized speech and even behavior
• Depression


  • Neurotransmitters/Chemicals involved: Continuous high levels of Cortisol
  • Symptoms: Persistent sadness and negativity, Loss of interest or pleasure in activities, Changes in appetite, changes in weight
• Drug Addiction


  • Neurotransmitters/Chemicals involved: Dopamine
  • Drugs as Rewards (feeling of pleasure and excitement)
  • Symptoms: The feeling of being 'high', restlessness, and obvious physical appearance changes
• Parkinson's Disease


  • Neurotransmitters/Chemicals involved: Dopamine
  • Symptoms: impaired motor control and muscle coordination due to decreased production in the substantia nigra, the brain region that is associated with your movement control
• Alzheimer's Disease


  • Neurotransmitters/Chemicals involved: Acetylcholine
  • Symptoms: Memory loss, difficulty with problem-solving/critical thinking, confusion, disorientation, mood swings, random behaviors
• Hormones


  Chemical messengers, signaling molecules produced by glands or specialized cells in multicellular organisms
• General types of hormones

  • steroid
  • peptide amino acid-derived
• Hormones in Annelids


  • Nereidine, peptide hormone (ragworms)
  • brain neuropeptide
• Functions of hormones in Annelids

  inhibit sexual development, maximize individual fitness
• Hormones in Mollusks


  • Glycoprotein
  • Modified amino acids
  • peptides
  • polypeptides
  • prostaglandins
  • steroid hormones
• Functions of hormones in Mollusks

  signaling capacities, and feedback regulation
• Functions of hormones in Arthropods

  • molting, diapause, reproduction, osmoregulation, metabolism, and muscle contraction
• Hormones in Echinoderms


  • Gonad-stimulating substance
  • neuropeptide (radial nerves)
• Functions of hormones in Echinoderms

  Induces oocyte maturation and spawning
• Hormones in Vertebrates


  • estrogen
  • cortisol
  • testosterone
• Functions of hormones in Vertebrates

  Affect a specific physiological response only to specific sites or targets
• Endocrine System


  A network of chemical communication among cells
• Primitive Endocrine System

  • Neurosecretory type
  • Neurosecretory cells produce neurohormones
  • secreted into the bloodstream or stored in the neurohemal organs
• Endocrine glands in the human body

  • Pituitary
  • Pineal
  • Thyroid
  • Parathyroid
  • Thymus
  • Pancreas
  • Adrenal Glands
  • Gonads (Testes and Ovaries)
• Pituitary Gland


  Located at the base of the brain, connected to the hypothalamus, and consists of the anterior and posterior lobe
• Pituitary Anterior Lobe


  Synthesizes its own endocrine hormones
• Pituitary Posterior Lobe


  Stores the hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus
• Pituitary Gland


  Master Gland, most hormones control other endocrine glands to secrete either more or less of their own hormones
• Endocrine glands


  Secrete hormones without ducts
• Exocrine glands


  Release substance through ducts, e.g. sebaceous glands, sweat glands
• Thyroid Gland


  Butterfly-shaped gland with two lobes located below the larynx and in front of the trachea
• Parathyroid Gland


  Located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
• Adrenal Glands


  Found on top of each kidney and made up of the cortex and medulla, secrete hormones that can increase blood Na+ levels, K+ secretions, and glucose levels
• Pancreas


  Found underneath the stomach, considered as both an exocrine (contains exocrine cells that secretes enzymes that function in digestion) and endocrine (secrete hormones)