Gender

• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The sex chromosomes, XXX (female) or XY (male), usually determine the sex of an individual.
• Intersex individuals


  • May have a mismatch between sex chromosomes, hormones and phenotype, or may have ambiguous genitals
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns

  • Klinefelter's syndrome
  • Turner's syndrome
• Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY)


  Affects 1/1000 males. Physical characteristics include: reduced testosterone, infertility (not in all cases), less muscle, less facial hair and broader hips than typical males. Psychological characteristics often include: language difficulties and ADHD
• Turner's syndrome (XO, a missing X chromosome)


  Affects 1/2000 females. Physical characteristics include: underdeveloped ovaries, meaning no menstruation. Psychological characteristics include: language fluency with social impairments and frequently difficulties with spatial and numerical tasks
• The role of hormones


  Most gender development is governed by hormones
• Testosterone production in male foetuses

  1. Produced in the testes from about 3 months, causing genitalia to develop

  2. Surge during puberty produces secondary sexual characteristics (deepening voice, body hair)
• Testosterone


  Produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes and relates to sex drive
• Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)


  Individuals may appear female
• Oestrogen


  • Promotes secondary sexual characteristics (breasts, body hair) in females
  • Not required for development of female genitalia, which are the default option
• Oxytocin


  • Promotes feelings of bonding and contentment
  • Causes milk to flow in a lactating mother
  • Has a role in orgasm in both sexes
• Typical features of Klinefelter's syndrome

  • Tendency to grow fewer chest hairs
  • Frontal baldness absent
  • Narrow shoulders-Poor beard growth
  • Wide hips
  • Breast development
  • Long arms and legs
  • Female-type pubic hair pattern
  • Small testicular size
• Kohlberg's theory


  Cognitive developmental approach proposing that children gradually develop the ability to think about gender, progressing through stages, as they become capable of more complex and abstract thought
• Kohlberg's stages of gender development

  1. Stage 1: Gender labelling (age 2-3) - Children label themselves and others as boy/girl, man/woman, based on outward appearance

  2. Stage 2: Gender stability (age 4-7) - Children recognise that gender is stable over time but not over situations, still swayed by outward appearances

  3. Stage 3: Gender constancy (age 6) - Children realise gender shows conservation across time and situations, and realise their gender will not change
• Social learning theory


  We learn indirectly from other people (models) by observing and imitating their behaviour
• Gender development


  1. Indirect reinforcement

  2. Direct reinforcement

  3. Mediational processes

  4. Direct tuition

  5. Self-direction
• Indirect reinforcement


  • Children observe gender behaviour of others from home, school, and the media. They learn, from the consequences, whether the behaviour is worth repeating (vicarious reinforcement). Girls identify with other females and are more likely to imitate their behaviour. Boys may also observe their mothers' behaviour at home but are less likely to imitate it
• Direct reinforcement


  • Reinforcement (eg. praise) of gender behaviour increases the likelihood that a child will repeat it. Punishment reduces it
• Mediational processes


  • Children store information about reinforcements as mental representations which create an expectancy of future outcomes. They will then display the behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment
• Direct tuition


  • When children acquire linguistic skills, they learn appropriate gender behaviour through explicit instructions such as 'be ladylike'
• Self-direction


  • People internalise gender-appropriate behaviours and then actively direct their own behaviour. This is no longer dependent on external reinforcement
• Research evidence supports modelling of gender
• Cultural influences


  The gender rules of a culture underlie stereotypes and influence peer and parental reinforcement
• Cultural role differences


  • Arapesh men and women were gentle and cooperative, Mundugumor men and women were violent and competitive, whereas Tchambuli women were dominant
• People across cultures believe that women are more conformist than men, but conformity actually varies
• The gender gap in domestic duties is decreasing in the UK
• Media influences


  Media role models perpetuate gender stereotypes. Vicarious reinforcement affects people's self-efficacy about their ability to master gender-consistent or inconsistent activities
• Media portrayals


  • Men are portrayed as independent and directive, whereas women are shown as dependent, unambitious and emotional
  • Men are more likely than women to be shown controlling events
  • Women in adverts are shown as more flawless and passive than men
• The media can present counter-stereotypes which reduce children's adherence to stereotypes