chapter 9 info processing

• information processing


  methods by which data from the environment are collected and utilised
• info processing can be split into 3 stages:

  1. input
  2. decision making
  3. output
• first stage of information processing - input

  performer uses senses to pick up information from the display, such as the opposition, the condition of the pitch, the crowd, the officials and teammates
• receptor systems (senses)


  information is picked up from the display using the 5 senses:

  • sight
  • auditory sense
  • touch
  • balance
  • kineasthesis
• hearing and sight can be classed as external senses, and balance, touch and kineasthesis are internal, internal senses are called the proprioceptors, as they provide intrinsic information
• kinesthesis


  inner sense that gives information about body position and muscular tension
• senses used in sport:

  
• second stage of information processing - decision making


  performer must make a decision based on all the information collected, all senses give back information but they need to make their decision on only the important aspects, perception and selective attention might be used to identify relevant information
• selective attention


  filtering relevant information from irrelevant information, in elite performers, selective attention is automatic, but to enhance it performers can learn to focus and concentrate on the important cues and getting used to the stimulus and learn to ignore irrelevant information being picked up, if stimulus is more loud or bright during training, it will develop player's instinct
• experienced players learn to develop their ability to use selective attention, however the ability to use selective attention can be hampered by psychological factors such as anxiety, motivation and confidence
• improved motivation helps selective attention, and this can be enhanced by rewards and positive comments about performance, application of mental practice can also help selective attention when the performer runs through the upcoming task in the mind before movement starts
• benefits of selective attention

  improves reaction time significantly, improves the chance of making the correct decision as irrelevant information is ignored
• perception


  process of coding and interpreting sensory information, has 3 elements:

  • detection = picked up relevant cues using senses and selective attention
  • comparison = match the information identified as important or not and match the information to information already in the memory
  • recognition = information from memory used to identify an appropriate response and can be put into action
• translatory mechanisms


  adapting and comparing coded information to memory so that decisions can be made, adapted into an image that can be sent to the memory for comparison so that past experiences can be identified as similar and then used, actions are stored in the memory as motor programmes and the translatory mechanism can pick out the correct one for the response, most effective in experienced performers are they already have information to aid
• third stage of information processing - output

  uses the effector mechanism = network of nerves that sends coded impulses to the muscles which then contract and the response can begin

  uses feedback = information used during or after the response to aid movement correction
• Whiting model

  1. environment - contains information needed to perform
  2. display - sporting information available to to player
  3. receptor systems - player uses 5 senses to collect information
  4. perceptual mechanism - detect relevant cues using selective attention
  5. translatory mechanism - compare to motor programme in the memory
  6. effector mechanism sends coded impulse to muscles
  7. muscles pick up impulse and contract
  8. output begins and feedback if available in various forms to the player

  
• memory system : the working memory


  consists of the central executive = control centre of the memory model, uses 3 other systems to control all the information moving in and out of the system:

  • phonological loop
  • visuospatial sketchpad
  • episodic buffer

  
• phonological loop


  deals with auditory information from the senses and helps produce the memory trace, it has a phonological store and an articulatory system to help it produce a memory trace, the trace is a mental idea of the skill and can be sent to long term memory to trigger a motor programme to be used
• visuospatial sketchpad


  used to temporarily store visual and spatial information, divided into 2 sections, the visual cache = form and colour, and the inner scribe = spatial and movement information, the inner scribe is important to sport and it suggests information about sporting actions that can be recognised and acted on
• episodic buffer


  responsible for coordinating the work of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad in the working memory into sequences to be sent to the long term memory, sequences are put in order in pattern of skills and are the starting point for the initiation of motor programme production
• long term memory (LTM)


  receives information from the working memory and has an unlimited capacity for the storage of motor programmes, sends information back to the working memory as it is comparing for use in the current sporting scenario, the long term and working memory work together to compare and make decisions
• features and functions of the memory system:

  • initiates action by sending the memory trace
  • working memory has a limited capacity, deals with 7 items at a time, information overload can cause attentional wastage
  • limited time scale of 30 seconds until information is used or lost
  • important information can be stored in long term memory as a motor programme, more permanent than a trace of a skill
  • long term memory has a large capacity of a lifetime
• storing information


  to ensure items are stored in the long term memory a coach could use:

  • rewards - extrinsic and intrinsic help to motivate the performer to want to remember actions
  • association - linking the stored actions of a skill to a stored emotion or action
  • mental practice - subroutines are imagined repetitively which helps remember the order of a routine such as in trampolining
  • chunking the task - breaking the skilled action into parts
• schema theory (schmidt) motor control and learning 1982

  suggests than rather use a structured set of movements to develop skills, core principles can be taken from an existing motor programme and then adapted using information from the environment and feedback from senses e.g throwing a javelin uses a motor programme that is made up of sub-routines such as grip, arm action and follow through
• parameters of a schema

  4 essential processes that must be used to ensure that the schema is effective:

  1. initial conditions = information from the environment, must be recognised before schema is used
  2. response specifications = information about what to do, assess available options open to the performer
• using both the initial conditions and response specification, information is uses from the motor programme in the memory system = recall schema, which is responsible for initiating movement and comes before the action
• once recall schema is completed, third and fourth parts of schema are used, and these control the movement during the action and are called the recognition schema, consist of:

  1. sensory consequences = information about the feel of the movement
  2. response outcome = feedback about the result, motor programme updated by getting knowledge of results of the action
• schema theory

  
• implications for coaching when using schema

  way to familiarise player with using a schema is by varying the practice conditions using different drills and manipulating the environment to adapt their approach, whilst this is happening the coach should offer frequent feedback to ensure motor programmes are being adapted, coach should point out and explain to the player when a schema can be used and when skills can be transferred, adaptations should be reinforced positively to improve motivation
• response time


  firstly the information is responded to and the faster the response is, the more time the player has to execute their skills, important in team games where skills are open and unpredictable
• reaction time


  time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the onset of a response, fraction of a second it takes to process available selected stimuli
• movement time


  time taken to complete a task, time from the start to the completion of the action for the required task
• response time = reaction time + movement time

  
• simple reaction time


  one specific response to one stimulus, e.g in swimming at the start of a race, the only choice should produce a fast reaction and response as the athlete only has to concentrate on one thing, choosing from multiple stimuli causes reaction and response time to be much slower, e.g in team games such as a key midfielder in hockey has to pick a stimuli from various indicators on the pitch, process is much slower
• Hick's law


  reaction time increases at the number of choices increase, can be used to player's advantage as you can e.g in tennis mix up serves with direction or slice, and this variety increases opponent's response and preparation time and delay their actions
• Hick's law does not have a linear relationship, players can become familiar with their environment and become more efficient in response time

  
• 3 concepts explain how timing and choice affect response time:

  • single channel hypothesis
  • psychological refractory period
  • anticipation
• single channel hypothesis


  states that stimuli can only be processed one at a time, therefore second stimuli must wait until the first one has been processed, any following stimuli must also wait, the processing delay increases response time

  
• psychological refractory period


  delay when a second stimulus is presented before the first has been processed, performer may 'freeze' for a split second to sort out the conflicting information, must sort out new and correct stimulus, but first they have to disregard the old and now useless stimulus which causes a delay, PRP can be used to advantage by deceiving opponent such as a dummy pass in rugby
• psychological refractory period (PRP)