Ustet

• What are the main organelles discussed in Cell Biology?

  1. Nucleus
  2. Mitochondria
  3. Ribosomes
  4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
  5. Golgi Apparatus
  6. Lysosomes
  7. Peroxisomes
  8. Cytoskeleton
• What is the structure of the nucleus?

  Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) in a double membrane-bound structure called the nuclear envelope.
• What is the function of the nucleus?

  Controls gene expression and mediates the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
• What is the structure of mitochondria?

  Double-membraned organelles with their own DNA.
• What is the function of mitochondria?

  Produces ATP through cellular respiration.
• What is the structure of ribosomes?


  Composed of rRNA and proteins, found either floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
• What is the function of ribosomes?


  Synthesize proteins by translating mRNA.
• What is the structure of the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?


  Rough ER is studded with ribosomes; Smooth ER lacks ribosomes.
• What is the function of Rough ER?

  Synthesizes and processes proteins.
• What is the function of Smooth ER?

  Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies substances.
• What is the structure of the Golgi Apparatus?


  Stack of membrane-bound sacs.
• What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?


  Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
• What is the structure of lysosomes?

  Membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes.
• What is the function of lysosomes?

  Breaks down macromolecules, old cell parts, and microorganisms.
• What is the structure of peroxisomes?


  Small membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes.
• What is the function of peroxisomes?

  Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.
• What is the structure of the cytoskeleton?

  Network of protein fibers (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules).
• What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

  Maintains cell shape, facilitates movement, and anchors organelles.
• What is the structure of the cell membrane?

  • Phospholipid Bilayer: Composed of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
  • Proteins: Integral and peripheral proteins that assist in various functions like transport and signaling.
• What are the transport mechanisms across the cell membrane?

  1. Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
  2. Osmosis: Diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane.
  3. Active Transport: Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (usually ATP).
• What are the phases of the cell cycle?

  Interphase (G1, S, G2) and Mitotic Phase (Mitosis and Cytokinesis).
• What is the function of the cell cycle?

  Process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two daughter cells.
• What are the phases of mitosis?

  Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
• What is the function of mitosis?


  Division of a eukaryotic cell's nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei.
• What are the phases of meiosis?

  Meiosis I (Homologous chromosomes separate) and Meiosis II (Sister chromatids separate).
• What is the function of meiosis?

  Produces four genetically unique haploid cells from a diploid cell.
• What are the laws of inheritance in Mendelian genetics?

  1. Law of Segregation: Each organism has two alleles for each gene, which segregate during meiosis.
  2. Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are passed independently of one another.
• What is the use of Punnett Squares?

  To predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring from genetic crosses.
• What is the result of a cross between two heterozygous individuals (Aa x Aa) for a single trait?

  1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
• What are the components of DNA structure?

  • Nucleotides (phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous base).
  • Double Helix: Two strands of nucleotides wound around each other with complementary base pairing (A-T, C-G).
• What is the process of DNA replication?

  Semi-conservative replication where each strand of the original DNA molecule serves as a template for the new strand.
• What are the steps of DNA replication?

  Initiation, Elongation (with DNA polymerase), Termination.
• What are the processes of gene expression?

  1. Transcription: Synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template.
  2. Translation: Synthesis of proteins from mRNA.
• What are the steps of transcription?


  Initiation, Elongation, Termination.
• What are the steps of translation?


  Initiation, Elongation, Termination. Involves ribosomes, tRNA, and rRNA.
• What are the types of mutations?

  • Point mutations
  • Insertions
  • Deletions
• What are the effects of mutations?

  Can be silent, missense, or nonsense, affecting protein function.
• What are the components of ecosystems and energy flow?

  1. Food Chains
  2. Food Webs
  3. Trophic Levels
  4. Energy Flow
• What is a food chain?

  Linear sequence of organisms where each is a food source for the next.
• What is a food web?

  Complex network of interconnected food chains.