ethical issues

• Ethical issues arise when a conflict exists between the participants’ rights and the researchers’ needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings.

  This conflict has implications for the safety and wellbeing of participants.
• The fundamental ethical question in psychological research is `Does the end justify the means?
• what is the BPS code of ethics?

  a set of guidelines which have been outlined by the British Psychological Society for anyone carrying out psychological research in the UK. Many countries have guidelines that are similar (for example the USA have the APA)
• the role of the BPS' code of ethics

  'designed to inform and assist our members in the practical and professional application of psychology, from research and teaching to clinical practice.'
• 4 main principles of BPS's ethical research

  • Respect
  • Competence
  • Responsibility
  • Integrity
• The BPS guidelines are not rules or laws but a set of professional advice that requires psychologists to exercise professional judgement in complex research situations
• informed consent

  Consent is not valid if participants are not informed of what they are agreeing to. So before the research participants should be made aware of the aims, and consequences of taking part in research (e.g. risk of harm, potential benefits of research). Consent may be gained from a parent or guardian if the participant is unable to give informed consent themselves (e.g. children, mentally incapable).
• right to withdraw

  Participants (as part of giving informed consent) should be told they can withdraw from the study at any stage with no adverse consequences (e.g. not being paid for their time). This includes withdrawing data collected from them.
• protection from harm

  Participants should be protected from physical and psychological harm. The researcher is responsible for designing research that does not risk the psychological well-being, physical health, personal values and dignity of the participants.
• privacy and confidentiality

  Participants have the right to privacy and their personal information should not be invaded. Any personal data should be kept confidential and is protected under the Data Protection Act.
• deception

  Deception means deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. This should not happen without justification. However, there are occasions when deception can be justified if it does not cause the participants distress.
• dealing with informed consent

  • Participants should sign a consent form detailing all relevant information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it.
  • Presumptive consent
  • Prior general consent
  • Retrospective consent
• presumptive consent

  a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agree, then consent of the actual participants is ‘presumed’.
• prior general consent

  participants give their permission to be deceived without knowing how they will be deceived. As participants know they will be deceived, this can affect their behaviour.
• retrospective consent

  participants are asked for their consent during debriefing, having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.
• dealing with deception

  Participants should be fully debriefed after the study. This involves informing them of the true nature of the study. Deception should only be used if justified and necessary.
• dealing with protection from harm

  • Minimise risk, allow withdrawal, and provide support (e.g., counselling if needed).
  • full debriefing at end of study
• dealing with the right to withdraw

  Clearly inform participants of their right to withdraw at any stage of the study. No pressure should be given.
• dealing with confidentiality & privacy

  Use pseudonyms, store data securely, and follow GDPR regulations/Data Protection Act
• If the research design requires deception or risks harm to participants, the researcher can perform a cost-benefit analysis. This is assessing the potential harm to participants and comparing this to the potential benefits of the research to society.
• The final decision on if research should be carried out is often not in the hands of a researcher but by an ethics committee, a group of experts who will use a cost-benefit analysis in their decision-making process. However, often the true value of a study to society isn't known for many years after a study has been published, this means it can be difficult to accurately conduct a cost-benefit analysis
• informed consent limitations

  • Participants may still not fully understand the study's true purpose or implications.
  • Demand characteristics could arise if they know too much.
• deception limitations

  • Even if debriefed, participants may feel embarrassed or betrayed. It’s difficult to fully reverse the effects of deception.
• protection from harm limitations

  • Some psychological harm may only become apparent later, making it hard to prevent entirely.
• right to withdraw limitations

  • Participants may feel pressured to stay, especially if they’ve been paid or are in a group study.
• confidentiality and privacy limitations

  • In small or unique studies, it may be difficult to ensure true anonymity. Some cases (e.g., reporting illegal activity) require breaking confidentiality.