U3AOS2

• learning


  a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience
• conditioning


  one of the most basic types of learning that involves linking stimuli that occurs close together
• classical conditioning

  • a type of associative learning where we learn that two events will follow each other after we have experienced their occurrence multiple times
  • pavlov’s experiment with salivating dogs
• CC terms

  • NS = stimulus that causes the relevant response
  • UCS = stimulus consistently producing an innate automatic and involuntary response
  • UCR = response that occurs involuntarily when the UCS is presented
  • CS = stimulus previously neutral but now as a result of repeated associations with the UCS, produces a CR when presented on its own
  • CR = learned behaviour that is triggered by the CS as a result of conditioning
• CC phase 1(before conditioning)

  neutral stimulus (NS) produces no relevant response; unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits the unconditioned response (UCR)
• CC phase 2 (during conditioning)

  neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce the unconditioned response (UCR). NS presented immediately before UCS to form association
• CC phase 3 (after conditioning)

  neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS); CS produces a conditioned response (CR), which is usually similar to the previously UCR
• operant conditioning

  • antecedent = what causes the behaviour
  • behaviour = what happens?
  • consequence = what happens as a result of the behaviour
• OC consequence: reinforcement

  • positive = adding a desirable stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated (add good)
  • negative = removal of unpleasant stimulus that decreases likelihood of a behaviour being repeated (take good)
• OC consequence: punishment

  • positive = adding an unpleasant stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated (add bad)
  • negative = removal of a desirable stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated (take good)
• observational learning

  acquisition of information / skills / behaviour through watching the performance of others
• observational learning

  • attention - learner actively watches the models behaviours and consequences (so you can retain it)
  • retention - forming a mental representation of the model’s behaviours (so you can reproduce it)
  • reproduction - learner needs to have the physical and mental capabilities to be able to reproduce the behaviour
  • motivation - how much the learner wants to complete the behaviour
  • reinforcement - a consequence that increases the likelihood of the learner reproducing the behaviour
• motivation (observational learning)

  • intrinsic = originates from within individual
  • extrinsic = originates from factors external to individual (ie. money)
• reinforcement (observational learning)

  • external = consequence (eg. praise)
  • vicarious = indirect (eg. model being praised)
  • self = meeting standards you place on yourself
• ATSI ways of knowing

  • learning not segmented, rather a holistic process where concepts are taught based on how they connect
  • knowledge accumulated by ATSI people embedded in country
  • knowledge is attached to songlines (nav tracts) throughout Australia
  • knowledge + stories have spirit
• ATSI learning through

  • songs
  • narratives
  • dance
  • ceremonies
  • modelling behaviour to young people
• ATSI learning

  • multimodal system of learning, including
  • story sharing
  • learning maps
  • non-verbal
  • symbols + images
  • non-linear
  • land links
  • community links
  • deconstruct / reconstruct
  • embedded in relationships between
  • concepts
  • learner & teacher
  • individuals, families and communities
  • all of the above and Country
• memory


  the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning
• memory encoding / processing


  transforming / converting raw sensory info into form that brain can understand (ie. neural impulse)
• memory storage


  encoded info is retained in memory system for a period of time
• memory retrieval


  locating info stored in memory and bringing it back from LTM to conscious awareness when needed, to complete cognitive task
• sensory memory

  • function - receives sensory info from environment, enables perceptual continuity for world around us
  • capacity - vast, potentially unlimited
  • duration
  • iconic = 0.2-0.4 seconds
  • echoic = 3-4 seconds
• short-term memory

  • function - receives info from sensory memory & transfers to + from LTM, maintains info in conscious awareness for immediate use (working memory)
  • capacity - 7 +/- 2 pieces of information
  • duration - 18-20 seconds (possibly up to 30 seconds), longer with rehearsal
• long-term memory

  • function - information storage for re-access and use at a later time
  • capacity - vast, potentially unlimited
  • duration - potentially permanent, some info lost/inaccessible over time, indefinite
• strengths of Atkinson-Shiffron model of memory

  • can differentiate b/w 3 different stores in memory
  • outlines a different capacity and duration for each memory store
  • model demonstrates the structure and process of memory
  • research supports the distinction between STM/LTM and this model demonstrates the reason behind amnesia patients struggling to retrieve and encode info between STM & LTM
• weaknesses of Atkinson-Shiffron model of memory

  • can be considered an oversimplified representation of memory
  • STM more complex than model suggests (has been suggested STM has multiple components to it
  • factors like motivation and strategy (which can help encoding information from STM to LTM) is ignored in this model
  • model initially proposed rehearsal was needed for info to be transferred into LTM (however, studies show this can occur without rehearsal)
  • individuals differences in memory processes, storage duration and capacity is not accounted for
• long-term memory subdivisions

  • explicit (memory with awareness)
  • episodic = personal experiences
  • semantic = facts and general knowledge
  • implicit (memory without awareness, can’t put into words you just know it)
  • procedural = motor skills previously learnt
  • CC = conditioned responses to displayed in response to conditioned stimuli
• hippocampus

  • processes, consolidates and retrieves explicit memories but does not store them
  • consolidation - process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience
• amygdala

  • encodes the emotional components of CC and explicit memories
  • aids survival
  • attaches emotional significance to an experience
  • if damaged, conscious memory still formed, but unable to acquire CC fear response (implicit)
• amygdala interacting with hippocampus

  • work together to form emotional memories
  • during an emotional event, adrenaline is released
  • this prompts the release of noradrenaline in the amygdala
  • this activates the amygdala to signal to the hippocampus that the experience is emotionally significant
  • amygdala is co-activated with the hippocampus leading to enhanced consolidation of the memory
• neocortex

  • covers the brains surface (it is like the fondant covering the cake, not technically inside but still a vital part) & is part of cerebral cortex
  • stores explicit memories
  • covers 2 cerebral hemispheres each containing four lobes
  • frontal (language)
  • parietal (spatial awareness)
  • occipital (visual)
  • temporal (auditory)
  • essentially, it is connected to nearly all parts of the brain (part of what we think, feel and do)
  • interacts with hippocampus in the formation, consolidation storage and retrieval of long term explicit memories
  • very involved in retrieval and reconstruction
• basal ganglia

  • encoding and storing long term implicit memories involving motor skills (responsible for motor control)
  • encodes and stores procedural memories through connection with cerebellum
  • stores responses learnt in CC
  • different to amygdala, as it encodes the emotional component of the CC, not the responses
• cerebellum

  • encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories (ie. the ‘how’ memories)
  • involved in the processes of motor control, coordination and balance (cerebellum, think ballerina= control, balance, procedure)
• possible imagined futures


  hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual has the ability to create and conceptualise in their mind
• possible imagined futures

  • episodic
  • allows individual to construct a subjective, detailed possible imagined future
  • recalling memory of receiving compliments for outfits
  • semantic
  • involved as individual needs to envision a scenario that is consistent and fits with what they know about the world
  • understanding what is meant by ‘semi-formal’ dress code
• Alzheimer's

  • neurodegenerative disease characterised by memory decline
  • neurodegenerative disease = diseases characterised by progressive loss of neurons in the brain
  • conclusive diagnosis can only be made through post-mortem examination once passed
  • Alzheimer’s leads to people struggling to retrieve episodic and semantic components of personally experienced events or create possible imagined futures
• characteristics of Alzheimer's

  • personality changes & ability to socialise
  • loss of memory, particularly declarative
  • inability to care for themselves
  • irreversible and fatal
  • decrease in cognitive functions (planning, problem solving, logical thinking)
• biological markers of Alzheimer's

  • amyloid plaques between neurons - destroys synapses and inhibits communication across the synapse
  • neurofibrillary tangles within neurons - inhibits transportation of essential substances within the neuron thus leading to neuronal death
  • reduced acetylcholine - destroys acetylcholine producing neurotransmitters, thus inhibiting effective communication
• Aphantasia

  • individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery
  • mental imagery - visual representations and experiences of sensory information without the presence of sensory stimuli
  • they cannot visualise richly detailed and vivid episodic memories, but the semantic memory is intact
  • reduces the richness and detail of autobiographical events and possible imagined futures
  • while they can still apply non-visual components, they struggle to retrieve detailed mental imagery from LTM regarding their personal experiences
• mnemonics

  • devices or techniques that organises and creates meaningful links between new information and existing information in long term memory to strengthen encoding and storage of information
  • every culture has both written and oral components
  • written - books, articles, visual arts
  • oral - songs, dances, storytelling