Atypical gender development

• What is the definition of dysphoria?

  A profound sense of unease or dissatisfaction
• What does gender dysphoria refer to?

  The distress from a disconnect in gender identity
• What is the mismatch in gender dysphoria?

  Between biological sex and psychological gender identity
• How was gender dysphoria classified in ICD-10?

  As a gender identity disorder
• How has ICD-11 redefined gender identity-related health?

  As "gender incongruence" in a new chapter
• What is the duration of strong feelings for gender dysphoria?

  At least 6 months
• What do people with gender dysphoria desire?

  To live as members of the opposite sex
• What may individuals with gender dysphoria opt for?

  Gender reassignment surgery
• What happens to gender dysphoria after transitioning?

  They no longer have gender dysphoria
• Why are prevalence rates of gender dysphoria hard to calculate?

  People may not identify as having the condition
• What is the estimated prevalence of gender dysphoria?

  Up to 1 in 5000 people
• When does most gender dysphoria occur?

  In childhood, often not persisting beyond puberty
• What is the genetic explanation for gender dysphoria?

  A genetic vulnerability leading to neurobiological abnormality
• What gene variant has been correlated with gender dysphoria?

  A variant of the androgen receptor gene
• What does brain sex theory suggest?

  Testosterone exposure affects brain structure
• What did Zhou et al. (1995) study?

  The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc)
• What was found about the BSTc in transgender individuals?

  It was similar to that of a female brain
• What does the learning theory suggest about gender dysphoria?

  It is influenced by operant conditioning and social learning
• What did Rekers (1995) propose about gender dysphoria?

  It is due to a lack of a stereotypical male role model
• What did Zucker et al. (2006) find in their study?

  Boys with GD had more brothers than sisters
• What is the significance of the birth order in Zucker et al.'s study?

  GD is more likely if boys are born later than brothers
• What did Heylens et al. (2012) study about twins?

  Concordance rates for GD in MZ and DZ twins
• What percentage of MZ twins were concordant for GD in Heylens et al. (2012)?

  39% (9 out of 23 pairs)
• What does the low concordance rate suggest about genetics in GD?

  Genetic factors' role is inconclusive
• What is a challenge in studying GD in twins?

  Difficult to separate nature and nurture influences
• What is a limitation of the sample sizes in twin studies?

  Limits generalizations that can be made
• What does Chung et al. (2002) claim about prenatal hormonal influences?

  They are not triggered until adulthood
• What did Mitchell (1991) find about maternal reactions to boys with GD?

  Mothers encouraged feminine behavior more
• What is a challenge in establishing cause and effect in GD studies?

  Mothers may react to existing characteristics
• What does biosocial theory propose about gender dysphoria?

  • Biological differences (e.g., prenatal testosterone imbalance)
  • Interacts with psychosocial factors (e.g., family relationships)
  • Influences development of gender dysphoria
• What are the practical implications of research on gender dysphoria?

  • Pathologizing GD as psychologically abnormal
  • GD not seen as a disorder in some countries
  • Reflects increasing social acceptance of diverse gender roles
• What are the key issues and debates surrounding gender dysphoria?

  • Biological vs environmental determinism
  • Reductionism of the biological approach
  • Nature vs nurture discussions