atypical gender development

• transsexual gene

  Hare et al. (2009): MtF transsexuals had a longer version of the androgen receptor gene, reducing testosterone action. This may affect gender development in the womb and lead to under-masculinization of the brain.
• phantom limb and cross wiring

  • Ramachandran (2008): Gender dysphoria may be akin to phantom limb syndrome, where brain areas "cross-wire".
  • Ramachandran & McGeoch (2007): Some FtM transsexuals experience phantom penis sensations, suggesting gender-related brain-body disconnection.
• mother son relationships


  Stoller (1975): Proposed that GID results from overly close, enmeshed mother-son relationships, leading to female identification and confused gender identity.
• mental illness

  Coates: Suggested that GID in a boy was a defensive response to his mother’s depression after an abortion. The trauma led to cross-gender fantasies to resolve anxiety.
• father daughter relationships

  Zucker (2004): Proposed that FtM transsexuals may identify as males due to early paternal rejection, hoping to gain acceptance by becoming male.
• environmental effects

  • External factors like pesticides may influence gender development.
  • Vreugdenhil et al. (2002): Found that boys born to mothers exposed to dioxins (estrogen-like chemicals) displayed feminized behaviors, suggesting environmental hormonal influences.
• brain sex theory

  • Gender dysphoria may arise from a mismatch between brain sex and genetic sex.
  • Zhou et al. (1995) & Kruijver et al. (2000): Found that MtF transsexuals’ BSTc neuron count was similar to females, and FtM transsexuals’ to males.
  • The BSTc region in the thalamus differs in size and neuron count between sexes, and may correlate with gender identity.
• A03 - support for social explanations

  Zucker et al. (1996): 64% of boys with GID were diagnosed with separation anxiety, suggesting a link to attachment issues.Social Sensitivity: Research on GID might stigmatize individuals or lead to harmful conclusions about family dynamics.
• A03 - socially sensitive research

  • Research on GID has social implications – identifying biological causes may reduce stigma but could also lead to deterministic views.
  • Findings like those from CAH cases suggest a complex interaction between biological and social factors, challenging simple cause-effect conclusions.
  • Research Methods:
  • Longitudinal Studies: Used to track the development of GID over time.
  • Issues and Debates:
  • Determinism: Could biological explanations of GID lead to the view that it is inevitable or uncontrollable?
• A03 - cross wiring research

  Ramachandran & McGeoch (2008): Only 10% of FtM patients experience phantom breast sensations after surgery, supporting the theory of brain-body disconnection.Biological Reductionism: Simplifies GID to brain-body disconnection, potentially ignoring social and psychological factors.
• A03 - criticisms of brain sex theory

  Chung et al. (2002): BSTc differences appear in adulthood, while gender dysphoria starts in childhood, suggesting BSTc differences may be an effect, not a cause.however, FtM transsexuals' white matter patterns more similar to males (their gender identity) than females (biological sex), supporting a biological influence.Neuroimaging: Used to study brain structure and white matter in transsexuals.

  • Strength: Provides objective, quantifiable data.