Atypical gender development

• Gender Dysphoria


  An individual may feel a mismatch between their biological sex and gender identity. Some individuals identify themselves as transgender
• DSM-5 Criteria for gender dysphoria

  Incongruence between expressed gender and primary sex characteristics

  A strong desire to get rid of ones primary sex characteristics

  Strong desire to be treated as the other gender
• Biological explanations of gender dysphoria

  Brain sex theory: gender dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person's biological sex. Particular attention towards dimorphic parts of the brain.

  Ning Zhou et al studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BSTc) in a region of the brain that is 40% larger in males. Post mortem studies of 6 male to female transgender individuals had a similar BSTc size of a typical female brain
• Biological explanations for gender dysphoria

  Genetic factors : Evidence suggests GD may have a genetic basis. Heylens et al compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins and found 39% of the MZ twins were concordant with 0% for DZ twins, suggesting there is a genetic basis towards developing gender dysphoria
• Evaluation of biological explanations of GD

  -Contradictory evidence

  It is claimed that BTSc is fully formed at around 5 so any hormone treatment that an individual may undergo should not change the BSTc. Hulshoff Pol et al found transgender hormone therapy did affect the size of the BSTc and therefore the differences found by Ning Zhou et al may be the result of hormone therapy and not a cause, meaning cause and effect cannot be established
• Evaluation of biological explanations of GD

  -Twin studies are inconclusive

  Although evidence from twin studies suggests GD may be partly inherited, twin studies do not have a high concordance rate for MZ twins (39% in Heylens study), and concordance rate isn't 100% suggesting there must be an environmental influence. Twin studies are usually really small samples to limits generalisability
• Evaluation of biological explanations of GD

  -Socially sensitive research

  Evidence suggests gender dysphoria is a medical condition caused by biological factors. This would suggest the disorder is determined from birth and some people would argue this means that the sooner someone is diagnosed the quicker they are able to transition. This raises socially sensitive issues about how to deal with very young children who are displaying symptoms - Children may change their minds later in life and may experience regret. Although it may make transition easier
• Psychoanalytic theory

  Founded on Freudian concepts that gender dysphoria could arise from difficulties with establishing gender identity and an incomplete resolution of Oedipus and Electra complex

  Ovesey and Person emphasise social relationships within family is the cause. GD in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity. Boy fantasises about a symbiotic fusion with his mother. So identify strongly with his mother rather than father as normal in Oedipus. Develops a female gender identity instead of male leading in GD
• Psychoanalytic: Supporting evidence of symbiotic fusion

  Stoller found in interviews, males with GD displayed overly close relationships with their mother, suggesting stronger female identification and a confused gender identity in long term
• Psychoanalytic: Explanation has been challenged

  Ovesey and Person's explanation does not provide an account of GD in females as it only applies to males. Rekers suggests gender disturbance in boys is likely to be associated with absence of the father rather than fear of separation from the mother
• Psychoanalytic: Difficult to test

  Based on pseudoscientific concepts so it is difficult to test. No way of demonstrating the existence of the unconscious mind and thus the theory is unfalsifiable. No way of knowing if repressed fantasies on the mother cause GD
• Social Constructionism:

  Gender identity doesn't reflect underlying biological differences between people and the concept of gender is invented or constructed by society

  Society sees gender as binary and for individuals with GD, gender confusion arises because society forces them to pick a side and act accordingly. Therefore, GD shouldn't be seen as a pathological condition but a social phenomenon arising from people being required to choose one of two paths
• Gender constructionism: Not all cultures have two genders (+)

  Some cultures officially recognise more than two genders. For example in Samoa, Fa'afafine is a third recognised gender distinct from male and female and have different gender roles. Showing the traditional binary classifications are culturally determined.
• Social constructionism: Alternative explanations of gender dysphoria

  Research has shown that BSTc of transgender individuals is more similar to that of their preferred gender than the gender assigned at birth. Suggesting a biological basis rather than gender being socially constructed

  So social explanations of GD may be incomplete as there are obviously multiple factors involved