Atypical gender development

• Gender Dysphoria


  The feeling that their biological sex and gender they identify as are mismatched. An individual with gender dysphoria doesn't identify as their sex assigned at birth. It may be a source of stress and discomfort and is recognized as a psychological disorder in the DSM-5
• Brain Sex theory of gender dysphoria

  The bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BST) is involved in emotional responses and male sexual behaviour in rats. This area is larger in men than women and has been found to be female-sized in transgender women. This suggests people with gender dysphoria have BSt the size of the sex they identify with. This fits with the report made by transgender people that they feel from a young age they were born the wrong sex. In a follow-up study, six transgender people showed an average BST neuron number in the female range.
• Genetic Factors on Gender Dysphoria


  Coolrige et al (2002) studied 157 twin pairs (96 Mz and 61 DZ) and found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors. This suggests there is a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria.

  Similarly, Heylens et al compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ where one was diagnosed with gender dysphoria. They found nine (39%) of MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to no DZ twins, indicating a role for genetic factors.
• Social constructionism explanation of gender dysphoria

  Social constructionism argues gender identity doesn't reflect underlying biological differences between people and instead, these concepts are invented by society. Society forces us to pick either male or female and act accordingly. This suggests gender dysphoria isn't a pathological condition but a social one created by this choice.
• Social Constructivism, Gender dysphoria and people of Sambia 


  McClintock (2015) cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea. Males are categorized as girls at birth as they have labia and clitoris. At puberty, the genitals change due to a large increase in testosterone, the testes descend and the clitoris enlarges to a penis. This genetic mutation is common in Sambia and it was accepted that there are men, women and 'kwolu-aatmwol' (females then males). Since contact with the West, they are now judged as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria.
• Psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria

  Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise the social relationships between family as the cause of gender dysphoria, that in males it's caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established, they fantasise of a symbolic fusion with their mother to relieve the anxiety and the danger of separation is removed. The consequence of this is the boy becomes the mother and adopts a female identity.
• Research support for the Psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria

  Stoller (1973) reports that in interviews with GD biological males, they were seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers that would lead to greater female identification and atypical gender identity in the long term.
• Contradictory evidence to brain sex theory

  A limitation of the brain sex theory is claims have been challenged. Pol et al studied changes in individuals brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment. This showed the size of the BST changed over that period. In studies by Kruijver et al and Zhou et al, the BSt was studied post-mortem after hormone treatment. This suggests differences in the BST may be caused by hormone therapy rather than the cause of gender dysphoria.
• Supporting evidence for the brain sex theory

  Evidence suggests there may be other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria. Rametti et al studied white matter in the brains of both male and female transgender individuals before hormone treatment as part of gender reassignment.There are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains. In most cases, the amount and redistribution of white matter corresponded with the gender they identified with. This suggests there are early differences in the brains of transgender individuals.
• Socially sensitivity of biological explanations of gender dysphoria 


  For some people knowing there is a biological basis to their condition may be a relief. Classifying it as a medical category requiring treatment removes the responsibility from the person. They feel less like it's 'their fault'.

  However, others may object to the label of mental illness being applied to gender dysphoria. Such a description risks stigmatising those who are subject to it, characterising them as 'ill' or 'sick' rather than just different'
• Strength of social constructivism explanation of gender dysphoria

  A strength of social constructivism is not all cultures have two genders. Cultures such as the people of Sambia in New Guinea recognize more than males and females. This challenges traditional notions. The fact that increasingly more people identify as non-binary suggests cultural understanding is only now coming to catch up with the lived experiences of many. Suggesting gender identity and dysphoria is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact.
• Limitation of the psychoanalytic theory


  Ovesey and Persons's explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applied to transgender females. Rekers found that gender dysmorphia in those assigned males at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother. This suggests that the psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria.
• Gender dysphoria and gender reassignment (evaluation point)

  Some people who experience gender dysphoria will decide to have gender reassignment surgery with appropriate support those individuals are able to reconcile their external appearance with the gender they identify as.

  However, a significant amount of people who experience gender dysphoria as children, don't as adults. Drummond et al followed 25 girls diagnosed with GD as a child. Only 12% were still classified as having it when followed up at 24.