10. atypical gender development

• what is gender dysphoria?

  a mismatch between a person's biological sex and the gender they feel they are
• what is the role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) in relation to gender and behaviour?

  the bst is involved in emotional responses and male sexual behaviour in rats
• how does the size of the bst differ between men and women?

  the bst is larger in men than in women
• what did kruijver et al (2000) find about the bst in trasngender females?


  the bst in transgender females was found to be female-sized
• how does the bst size in people with gender dysphoria compare to their biological sex?

  people with gender dysphoria have a bst size that matches the sex they identify with, rather than their biological sex
• what did zhou et al. (1995) suggest about transgender individuals and early childhood experiences?

  their findings support the idea that transgender individuals feel, from early childhood, that they were born the wrong sex
• what did coolidge et al (2002) find in their twin study regarding gender dysphoria?


  they studied 157 twin pairs and suggested that 62% of gender dysphoria cases could be accounted for by genetic variance
• what did heylens et al (2012) find about the concordance rates of gender dysphoria in mz and dz twins?

  they found that 39% of mz twins were concordant for gender dysphoria, while none of the dz twins were
• what is one limitation for research into biological explanations for atypical gender development? (4)

  • brain sex theory assumptions have been challenged
  • hulshoff pol et al (2006) found bst size changed significantly during hormone treatment
  • kruijver et al and zhou et al studied the bst post-mortem after individuals had undergone treatment
  • this suggests bst differences may be an effect of hormone therapy rather than a cause of gender dysphoria
• what is one strength for research into biological explanations for atypical gender development? (4)

  • there may be other brain differences in transgender individuals
  • rametti et al (2011) analysed the brains of male and female transgender individuals before hormone treatment
  • white matter distribution matched the gender they identified with rather than their biological sex
  • this suggests early brain differences in transgender individuals
• how can classifying gender dysphoria as a medical condition be both beneficial and problematic? (3)

  • classifying gender dysphoria as a medical condition removes personal responsibility, reducing the feeling that it's 'their fault'
  • however, it can stigmatise individuals by labelling them as 'ill' or 'sick' rather than 'different'
  • researchers and clinicians should avoid reinforcing damaging stereotypes
• what does the social construction perspective argue about gender identity?

  gender identity is not based on biological differences but is 'invented' by societies
• how does the social construction perspective explain gender dysphoria?

  gender dysphoria arises because society forces individuals to choose between being a man or a woman, leading to 'gender confusion'
• according to the social construction perspective, how is gender dysphoria viewed differently from the DSM's definition?

  it is seen as a social phenomenon, not a pathological condition
• what example did Martha McClintock (2015) use to illustrate the social construction perspective?


  she cited the case of individuals with 5-alpha-reductase deficiency in the Sambia of New Guinea, where some biological males are classified as girls at birth and later transition to males at puberty
• how did the Sambia of New Guinea view individuals with 5-alpha-reductase deficiency?

  they were accepted as kwolu-aatmwol, or females-then-males, a common and accepted variation in their culture
• how has the perception of kwolu-aatmwol individuals changed since contact with other cultures?

  they are now viewed as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria
• What do Ovesey and Person (1973) believe causes gender dysphoria in biological males?


  they argue it is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established, leading the boy to fantasise about a fusion with his mother
• how do Ovesey and Person's theory explain a boy developing a female gender identity?

  the boy becomes the mother in a symbolic sense, adopting a woman's gender identity to relieve anxiety
• what did Stoller (1973) find in his interviews with biological males with gender dysphoria?


  he found that they displayed overly close relationships with their mothers, suggesting stronger female identification and conflicted gender identity
• what is one strength for research into the social explanations for atypical gender development? (3)

  • some cultures, like the fa'afafine of samoa, recognise more than 2 genders, challenging the male vs female binary
  • an increasing number of people now describe themselves as non-binary, reflecting cultural changes
  • this suggests gender identity (and dysphoria) is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact
• what is one limitation for research into the social explanations for atypical gender development? (3)

  • one limitation is issues with psychoanalytic theory
  • ovesey and person's theory does not explain gender dysphoria (GD) in biological females and only applies to transgender females
  • reker (1986) found that GD in transgender females is due to the absence of the father, not fear of separation from the mother
  • this suggests psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria
• (discussion point/limitation) why must gender reassignment surgery be carefully managed, especially before the age of consent?


  • some people with gender dysphoria (gd) may choose gender reassignment surgery
  • however, gd may continue into adulthood, with only 12% of gd girls still experiencing gd at 24 (Drummond et al 2008)
  • this suggests that surgery before the age of consent must be carefully managed with appropriate support and safeguards