Atypical gender development

• Brain sex theory

  GD has a basis in brain structure of the BST. this is involved in emotional responses and also in sexual behaviour in rats. This area is larger in men than women and is found to be female sized in transgender females. Therefore those with GD have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with.
• Genetic factors

  Coolidge et al assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of GD. they found 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors which suggests there is a strong heritable component to GD. Heylens et al compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with GD. they found nine of the MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to none of the DZ’s which would indicate a role of genetic factors in the development of gender dysphoria
• contradictory evidence - biological

  • one limitation of BST is its central claims have been challenged.
  • Pol et al studied changes in transgender individuals brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment.
  • scans showed that the size of the BST changed significantly over that period.
  • studies by Kruijver and Zhou e al the BST was examined post mortem and after they recieved hormone treatment.
  • this suggests that differences in BST may have been an effect of hormone therapy rather than cause of gender dysphoria
• other brain differences - biological

  • one strength is that evidence suggests that other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria.
  • Rametti et al studied another sexually dimorphic area of the brain, the white matter.
  • there are regional differences in the proportion of matter in male and female brains.
  • Rametti analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals, crucially before they began hormone treatment as part of gender reassignment.
  • in most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified themselves as being rather than their biological sex.
  • therefore there are early differences in the brain of transgender individuals
• social constructionism

  • argues that gender identity does not reflect underlying biological differences between people.
  • instead these concepts are invented by societies.
  • for individuals, who experience gender dysphoria, the confusion arises because society forces people to pick a side and act accordingly.
  • McClintock cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea. this causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth as they have a clitoris and labia.
  • at puberty their genitals change
• psychoanalytic theory

  • ovesey and person emphasize social relationships within the family as cause of gender dysphoria.
  • they argue in biological males it is caused by them experiencing extreme separation anxiety .
  • they fantasise a symbiotic fusion with the mother to relieve anxiety.
  • the consequence is that the boy adopts a womens identity.
  • stoller interviewed 60 biological males and those who had an overly close relationship with the mother had stronger female identification
• social constructionism - social

  • one strength is that not all cultures have 2 genders.
  • some cultures recognise more than 2 such as the fa'afafine of Samoa.
  • this is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female.
  • the fact that their are increasing numbers of people describing themselves as non binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to catch up.
  • this suggests GI is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact
• psychoanalytic theory - social

  • one limitation is that there are issues .
  • ovesey and persons explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as it only applies to biological males.
  • Rekers found that gender dysphoria in those assigned biological males is caused by absence of father not the fear of seperation from mother.
  • this suggests this theory does not provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria.