Glycogen is a homopolymer of a-D-glucose with linkage a=1,4 and branching a-1,6 (at about every 8-10 residues) and is stored as granules in hepatocytes.
During glycogenolysis, glucose is released as Glc-1-P, which is already phosphorylated without consuming ATP and cannot leave the cell and go to the bloodstream.
A-1,6 glycosidic bond is cleaved by an a-1,6-glucosidase during de-branching, releasing glucose that is converted to glucose-6-P and can enter glycolysis.
Light Reactions of Photosynthesis involve the excitation of electrons in photosystems, which involves electron transfer from two photosystems: PS II to PS I.
Excitation of electrons in Photosystem II involves a series of excitations and energy transfer until it reaches the reaction center, where an excited electron is captured by the primary acceptor (pheophytin).
The Calvin - Benzon Cycle or C 3 Photosynthesis involves the reduction of carbon from CO2 in a more reduced state as hexose, using NADPH and ATP produced from light reactions.
The first step in the Calvin Cycle is the fixation of CO2 with ribulose - 1,5 - bisphosphate (RubP) to form 2 molecules of 3 - phosphoglycerate (3 - PGA), catalyzed by RuBisCO.
Cyclic Electron Flow occurs when NADP + is not available, where electrons from ferredoxin are transferred back to the Electron Transport Chain between Photosystem II and Photosystem I, resulting in only ATP being generated.
In Photosystem I, plastocyanin transfers electrons to P700, where the excited electron is transferred to ferredoxin then to NADP + reductase, which uses high energy electrons to reduce NADP + to NADPH.
The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) consists of plastoquinone, cytochrome complex, and plastocyanin, and generates a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis.
Glucose-1-P is dephosphorylated in the liver and free glucose exits the hepatic cells and goes into the blood stream for maintaining proper blood glucose levels and transport to other organs (brain and muscles).
Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic organisms convert CO2 into sugars, with the use of energy coming from sunlight, involving the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
Alcohol Metabolism involves the steps: NADH promoting the reduction of oxaloacetate back to malate, no OAA becoming available for gluconeogenesis, and high [NADH] inhibiting fatty acid oxidation.
The effect of Ethanol Metabolism is to inhibit TCA cycle by high [NADH], which in turn inhibits isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, preventing the processing of acetyl CoA2.
During strenuous exercise, ATP requirement shoots up that cellular respiration cannot cope up, oxygen supply in the muscle becomes depleted, ETC and Krebs cycle stops, and conditions become anaerobic, leading to pyruvate being diverted for lactate production.
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, containing pigments such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, which are excellent light harvesters due to the presence of conjugated double bonds.
Gluconeogenesis and Hypoglycemia are inhibited when alcohol is metabolized, glycogen reserves are depleted, and blood glucose levels are significantly low, leading to hypoglycemia.