Vaccine

• Vaccine roots into boda without being
• Dun Development Santibudlic bactria not wine Cclesioned to be.aspcaricas possible as to net destroy the good loaders within our backy
• When using the whole cause so hat bacteria can't become resistant
• Natural Drugs


  • Penicillin-come from a mould
  • Aspirin-painkiller came from trees
• Synthetic drugs


  Cost a lot of money to develop
• Drug production


  1. Put through trials to assess for efficacy (How well they work)

  2. Toxicity and dose

  3. Tested on cell tissue

  4. Animals then humans
• Bind halogroll patients + doctors don't know drugic
• Double blind


  Which drug is which kodiminalo bias
• Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)


  Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water
• Exercise


  • Heart rate + breathing rate increased
  • Blood flow increased
• Anaerobic Respiration (without O₂)

  1. To supply more oxygen to glucose

  2. Occurs during intense exercise

  3. Oxygen debt, lactic acid is

  4. To enable muscles to contract

  5. Broken down into glucose by the liver using agen
• Endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands (including the adrenal medulla), pancreas, ovaries/testes, and pineal gland.
• The main function of the endocrine system is to secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which then travel throughout the body.
• Gap junctions are channels between adjacent cells that allow for the passage of ions, nutrients, and other small molecules.
• Glucose, amino acids and vitamins are actively transported back into the blood by the proximal convoluted tubule
• Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and homeostasis.
• Electron microscopes


  Have higher resolving power or resolution, allowing finer details to be visualized like cell organelle subcellular structure
• 5 micromet


  5 * 10^-6 M, because micro means * 10^-6 or a millionth
• Subcellular structures or organelles only found in plant cells


  • Chloroplasts
  • Permanent vacuole
  • Cell wall
• Eukaryotic cells


  DNA is found in the nucleus
• Prokaryotic cells


  DNA is not found in a nucleus
• Stages of mitosis


  1. Nucleus dissolves and genetic material is duplicated

  2. Two sets of chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell

  3. Organelles are duplicated

  4. Cell divides producing two genetically identical diploid cells
• Diploid human cells


  Have 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes
• Haploid human cells


  Have 23 chromosomes
• Diffusion


  Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, down the concentration gradient, passive and doesn't require energy
• Osmosis


  Diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane to balance the concentration of solutions on either side, water moves into the higher concentration solution to dilute it
• Active transport


  Movement of molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration against the concentration gradient, requires energy
• Factors that increase the rate of diffusion or osmosis

  • Increase temperature
  • Increase difference in concentrations
  • Increase surface area
• Finding the concentration of sugar inside a potato in the osmosis practical

  Interpolate using a line of best fit where it crosses the x-axis, this is the concentration at which no osmosis would occur, which is the same as the concentration inside the potato cells
• Bile


  Made by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, then goes to the small intestine where it emulsifies lipids/fats to form small droplets, increasing the surface area and rate of breakdown by enzymes like lipases
• Amylase


  Enzyme secreted by the salivary glands and pancreas that breaks down starch into glucose
• Villi


  Cells in the small intestine that absorb nutrients into the bloodstream, they are hairlike to have a large surface area to increase the rate of absorption
• Enzymes


  Biological catalysts that facilitate crucial processes in the body, such as breaking down polymers into monomers
• Enzyme specificity


  Enzymes only break down certain molecules due to their lock and key nature, where only specific substrates can bind to the enzyme's active site
• Factors that increase enzyme activity

  • Increasing temperature (up to the optimum)
  • Optimum pH
• Factors that denature enzymes

  • Temperatures too high
  • pH too high or too low
• Carbohydrases


  Break down complex carbohydrates into simple sugars
• Proteases


  Break down proteins into amino acids
• Lipases


  Break down lipids/fats into glycerol and fatty acids
• Knowing amylase has broken down all starch in the enzyme practical

  The solution will no longer turn black or change color when added to iodine in the spotting tile