International relations

• What caused the scramble for Africa?

  Racism - belief that the white race was superior and inferior African tribes should be 'civilised'.

  Prestige - if one power acquired a colony, others were compelled to copy them or appear weak.

  Economics - Africa offered an abundance of natural resources to fuel economic growth.
• Who attended the Berlin Conference of 1884-5?

  Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Austria-Hungary and Italy. No Africans attended and only two delegates had ever visited the continent. Britain's attendance was significant because it showed that the British had relinquished their historic dominance over colonies.
• What was agreed at the Berlin Conference of 1884-5?


  Effective occupation - a power required a physical presence in a territory before it could claim it. Slavery was banned. Belgium was permitted to colonise the Congo, where half the population died under King Leopold II's rule.
• What were the consequences of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5?

  Africa became 'up for grabs'. The Great Powers rushed to formalise and extend their empires. Before the conference, Europeans only presided over coastal areas; afterwards, they rushed inland to secure the interior of Africa. France bagged a large swathe of West Africa and Germany colonised Togo, Cameroon, German East Africa and German South West Africa. Germany's colonies were very much the leftovers. War was averted in the short-run but the resulting increase in colonisation created more borders and potential for future conflict, such as in Fashoda in 1898.
• What happened in the Fashoda Incident, 1898?

  Britain's plans for building a 'Cape to Cairo' railway between Egypt and South Africa clashed with French eastward colonial expansion in the Sudan, (towards Djibouti on the Red Sea). British and French armies met in Fashoda, on the River Nile, but didn't fight. Despite a nationalistic mood at home, the French backed down, knowing the Royal Navy would ensure an eventual British victory. In the long-run, France realised it couldn't afford to have Britain as an enemy as well as Germany and Austria-Hungary, and signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904.
• Why did the Second Boer War break out in 1899?

  Britain wanted to unify its colonies in the region as South Africa. Therefore, the independent Boer republics, (Transvaal and Orange Free State) represented a stumbling block to British imperial ambitions.

  A discovery of gold in the Transvaal threatened to strengthen the republic's economy so that it could resist colonisation permanently.

  British relations with the Boers deteriorated when 'uitlanders' (foreigners exploited the gold) were denied voting rights.

  A failed coup by the British in 1895, the Jameson Raid, convinced the Boers that there independence was under threat.
• What happened in the Second Boer War, 1899-1902?

  Britain was denied a quick victory as the Boers resisted colonisation with guerilla tactics. It exposed flaws in the British army.

  Britain's employment of concentration camps drew condemnation by the rest of Europe.

  Anglo-German relations were strained in 1896 when Kaiser Wilhelm II sent a telegram to President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal, emphasizing his support for their independence.
• What was at stake for Austria and Russia in the Balkans?

  For Austria, the numerous ethnic minorities within the empire could be inspired by Serbian, Montenegrin and Bulgarian independence and rebel against the Habsburg monarchy. Keeping friendly relations with the Balkan states would ensure they didn't sponsor nationalism within the Austro-Hungarian empire.

  For Russia, it hoped to establish satellite states in the Balkans, to expand Russian influence. Russia saw itself as 'protector of the Slavs'. Friendly relations were popular in Russia, since most Russians and Balkan peoples were Slavs.
• What was the Great Game?

  Competition between Britain and Russia over Afghanistan and neighbouring areas in Central Asia. Britain saw Russian expansionism in Central Asia as a threat to India, its most important colony. Such rivalry soured Anglo-Russian relations throughout the nineteenth century.
• Why was an Anglo-French agreement impossible during the 1880s or 1890s?

  Britain was France's natural enemy.

  In 1882 Britain dispatched troops to Egypt after a nationalist uprising, to protect the Suez Canal, a joint Anglo-French project, from disorder.

  Britain and France clashed during the Fashoda Incident., although it was resolved peacefully and contributed to the Entente Cordiale.
• What was the default British foreign policy?

  Splendid Isolation - taking little interest in European affairs and focusing on expanding the Empire. This policy could be abandoned when there was a risk to the balance of power in Europe.
• How did Anglo-German relations evolve during the 1890s and early 1900s?

  An Anglo-German alliance seemed natural since Britain and Germany shared closely-related royal families and similar cultures, (Kaiser Wilhelm II was Edward VII's nephew). They both saw France and Russia as threats to their interests.

  Kaiser Wilhelm II's policy of Weltpolitik - elevating Germany to world power status - aggravated Britain because it challenged Britain's colonial and naval domination. So did the Kaiser's support for the Boers in 1896.

  Bernhard von Bulow - German Foreign Minister - miscalculated that colonial rivalry with France would drive Britain into Germany's arms, securing Germany a more favourable agreement.

  An Anglo-German alliance was supported by Queen Victoria, Lord Salisbury and Joseph Chamberlain. However, when Chamberlain proposed an agreement in 1898, 1899 and 1901, Germany's response was lukewarm. Britain was unwilling to ally with Germany if it risked being dragged into a war in the Balkans by Austria, Germany's ally.

  Germany's plans for a Berlin-Baghdad railway - a threat to Egypt, the Suez Canal and India - and the passage of the German navy laws ruined any prospects for an Anglo-German alliance in the 1900s.
• Why did France and Russia conclude the Franco-Russian alliance in 1894?

  In 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm I died and was Wilhelm II - a more engaged ruler - assumed the throne. After Bismarck's resignation in 1890, Wilhelm II allowed the Reinsurance Treaties to elapse, disapproving of the limitation of Austro-German influence in the Balkans. German ministers gambled that ideological differences would prevent an alliance between France and Russia.

  France required an ally for defence (protection against the potentially hostile Triple Alliance bloc) and offence, (to retake Alsace-Lorraine). France and Russia also shared colonial rivalries with Britain. Also, French banks could provide loans for Russia to develop its railways and industry, and the alliance paved way for such contracts.
• What were the terms of the Franco-Russian Alliance, 1894?


  1. If Germany, or Italy supported by Germany, attacks France, Russia must attack Germany. If Germany, or Austria supported by Germany, attacks Russia, France must attack Germany.

  2. If any of the Central Powers mobilise, France and Russia must mobilise fully and simultaneously.

  3. France and Russia should aim to act quickly so Germany has to fight a war on two fronts.

  4. French and Russian General Staffs should co-operate to achieve the above clauses.

  5. France and Russia will not make peace separately.

  6. The Convention will last as long as the Triple Alliance.

  7. The alliance must be kept absolutely secret.
• Why was the Dual Alliance of 1879 formed?


  Austria-Hungary and Germany shared concerns about Russian influence in the Balkans. Germany was only unified in 1871 and the alliance gave the country credibility. It also gave Austria prestige by allying it with an ascending power, (bearing in mind Austria was a declining power).
• What were the terms of the Dual Alliance?


  1. If either power is attacked by Russia, the other must provide full military support.

  2. If either power is attacked by a different power, the other should observe 'benevolent neutrality', (lending non-military support).

  3. The alliance must be kept secret.

  4. The agreement will last for five years and should be renewed every three years thereafter.

  However, to Bismarck's disappointment, Austria didn't pledge support if France attacked Germany.
• Why did Italy join the Central Powers in 1882?

  Italy wanted to make peace with Austria over Istria and the Tyrol. Austria, in turn, didn't wish to fight a war on two fronts. Italy was also a valuable ally for Germany against France, which enraged Italy when it made Tunisia a French protectorate in 1881.
• What were the terms of the Triple Alliance, 1882?

  1. Germany and Italy would provide mutual support if one was attacked by France.

  2. If any member was attacked by any other power, they would provide mutual support.

  3. If Austria went to war with Russia, Italy would remain neutral.

  4. The alliance should be kept secret.
• How did alliances affect international relations by 1900?


  Whilst they were leaked, rival blocs didn't know the exact terms, forcing army chiefs of staff to prepare for the worst case scenario. Such secrecy also created tension between the Great Powers and represented the gradual abandonment of congresses to resolve disputes.

  It could be argued that alliances discouraged war, since it would likely involve multiple adversaries.
• What was the 1897 Austro-Russian agreement


  1. Neither power would attempt to alter the balance of power in the Balkans.

  2. Both powers would oppose a power who tried to acquire territory in the Balkans.

  3. Both accepted that the Turkish Straits were closed to warships when Turkey is at peace.

  4. If the Ottoman Empire collapsed, Austria could annex Bosnia-Herzegovina.
• What happened in Serbia in 1903?


  In May, Serbian army officers assassinated the pro-Austrian King and Queen, installing a pro-Russian dynasty in their place. King Paul's new government was unconcerned about keeping friendly relations with Austria and fermented Serbian nationalism. Serbia championed Pan-Slavism, a movement seeking to create a unified Slav state, Yugoslavia, from Serbs, Bosnians, Montenegrins, Croats and Slovenes, (many within Austria-Hungary). Serbia was passive in controlling the activities of terrorist groups such as the Black Hand.
• How did Russia view itself in the Balkans?

  Russia saw itself as 'protector of the Slavs' and knew that Serbia would expect help in achieving its nationalist goals. However, after defeat in the 1904-5 Russo-Japanese War, Russia was not strong enough to stand-up to Germany and Austria. Russia also couldn't afford to continue its imperial conflict with Britain, leading to the Anglo-Russian Agreement in 1907.

  Russia embarrassingly failed to help Serbia during the 'Pig War' of 1906-8 because of German intervention.
• How did militarism affect Germany before the First World War?

  German nationalism justified militarism, since Germany required a strong army to defend itself. German militarism translated to a nationalist foreign policy because military chiefs of staffs took over from the civilian government, with the pretext of military necessity. German army officials boasted that the army swore its oath to the Kaiser, not the people, and Wilhelm II was overjoyed to give the army inflated importance in society and politics.
• How did the Anglo-German naval race proceed in the late 1890s and 1900s?

  1898 - 1st German Navy Law provided for construction of 7 new battleships.

  1900 - 2nd German Navy Law enabled doubling of German navy.

  1906 (February) - The Royal Navy launched HMS Dreadnought, rendering the German fleet obsolete.

  1906 (May) - Germany laid down plans to widen and deepen the Kiel Canal to enable the construction of 'dreadnoughts'.

  By 1914, Britain had 'won' the naval race, building 29 dreadnoughts compared to Germany's 17. However, the naval race was very expensive and only succeeded in damaging Anglo-German relations.
• What battle plans were drafted in the 1900s in the event of a general European war?

  Schlieffen Plan (Germany) - finished in 1905, the Germans sought to overcome the problem of encirclement by defeating France in six weeks by attacking it via Belgium, before redeploying to fight Russia before the 'steamroller army' fully mobilised.

  Plan No.19 (Russia) - planned for a quick attack on East Prussia, to divert German troops away from France, presumed to be the German target. France loaned Russia the money to build railways to execute Plan No.19.
• What was the Anglo-Japanese Agreement, 1902?


  The first alliance between a European and an Asian power. Britain and Japan shared fears of the encroaching French, German and Russian empires in the Far East, and their threats to their own colonies and trade routes. Britain and Japan pledged mutual support if either power was attacked by two in the Far East, and promised to observe neutrality if either was attacked by only one power.
• What factors contributed to the Anglo-French Entente of 1904?


  Francophile Edward VII's visit to Paris in 1903 charmed the French public.

  Wishes to resolve colonial rivalries. France also needed support for its claims to Morocco.
• What did the Entente Cordiale stipulate? How did Germany feel?

  1. France recognised the British occupation of Egypt. Britain agreed not to oppose France in Morocco.

  2. Both agreed to help each other member out when in disputes with other powers over Egypt or Morocco.

  3. Regular consultation on naval and military matters arranged.

  Germany was concerned by the Entente Cordiale because it extended the encirclement of Germany by a hostile alliance bloc.
• What were the consequences of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5?


  Japan destroyed most of the Russian navy, including all of its battleships and most of its cruisers. Russia responded with a rapid rearmament programme. In 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth (USA) compelled Russia to hand over South Sakhalin and the lease of Port Arthur, evacuate Manchuria and recognise Korea as a sphere of Japanese influence. The conflict exposed weaknesses in the Russian military, driving the French to push for a Anglo-Russian agreement. Also, Britain no longer worried about Russian expansionism in the Far East.
• What was the Anglo-Russian Agreement, 1907?

  Like the Anglo-French Entente, the agreement was not a military alliance, but a 'cordial understanding'. Germany was given assurances by Britain that it didn't express anti-German sentiments among the British. It was also a useful way to resolve longstanding colonial disputes in Central Asia.

  1. Over Afghanistan, Britain won control over its foreign policy, whereas Britain and Russia got equal trading rights.

  2. Russia was allowed control over Northern Persia while Britain could control the south and the Persian Gulf. A central section remained neutral.
• How was the First Moroccan Crisis started?


  France wanted a distinct political influence in Morocco, contrary to the 1880 Madrid Conference which gave all attendees equal trading rights. In January 1905 a French delegation (approved by Britain) met with the Moroccan Sultan to persuade him to agree to a series of reforms. Germany feared that Morocco was about to become a French protectorate, against German commercial interests. In March the Kaiser arrived in Tangiers to deliver provocative speeches against the French, to induce France to back down. Since Wilhelm II indicated he would defend the Moroccans, the crisis risked precipitating a colonial war between France and Germany.
• What happened at the Algeciras Conference, 1906?

  Delcasse, French Foreign Minister, urged the government to resist Germany. However, knowing the Russians were busy fighting Japan and couldn't provide military support to France, the government forced Delcasse to resign and called a conference to resolve the dispute. Delegates from 13 countries met in Spain, but only Austria-Hungary (along with Germany) opposed French claims.
• What were the consequences of the First Moroccan Crisis?

  Wilhelm and von Bulow failed to break the Anglo-French Entente, and in fact strengthened it. In 1906 a Liberal government came to power in Britain, and its anti-German Foreign Secretary Edward Grey advocated total support for France.

  France was awarded extensive control over the Moroccan police and state bank, whereas Germany got mere assurances over equal trading rights and the Sultan's independence. Wilhelm also pivoted from calling conferences to solve disputes to backdoor negotiations, dissatisfied with the result. Also, Anglo-Russian relations improved because they encountered a subject where they could agree.
• What happened during the Second Moroccan Crisis, 1911?


  In 1911 France dispatched troops to the Moroccan capital of Fez with the suspicious pretext of suppressing a local uprising. Germany reacted by sending the gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir, supposedly to protect German interests. Germany's presence was a threat to Gibraltar, a vital British possession. Chancellor David Lloyd George delivered his Mansion House speech,expressing his support for France and inducing Germany to back down. In March 1912 France was permitted to make Morocco a protectorate and Germany was offered territory in the French Congo as compensation, under the Treaty of Fez.
• What were the consequences of the Second Moroccan Crisis?

  The crisis only served to weaken Anglo-German relations and strengthen Anglo-French ones. Between 1911 and 1914 nationalists in Britain and France came to dominate. In France, Raymond Poincare, strongly anti-German, was elected prime minister. In March 1912 Britain and France agreed the Anglo-French Naval Agreement, where the Royal Navy would confine itself to the North Sea and Gibraltar and France would dominate the Mediterranean. Indirectly, Italy mirrored France by attacking Turkish Tripoli, overstretching the Ottoman military and encouraging the Balkan states to resolve the 'Macedonian Question'.
• What was the condition of the Ottoman Empire before the Young Turk Revolution of 1908?

  Britain and France retained political control over Turkey since it was in debt to the Western democracies after to the Crimean War.

  Sultan Abdul Hamid was known as the 'Red Sultan' for his brutal treatment of Christians in the 1894-6 Armenian massacres. Since

  Since the empire didn't have a university, intellectuals studied in western European institutions, where they encountered democratic ideals. Revolutionary ones intended to restore the Constitution, which Abdul Hamid suspended in 1878 two years after its creation. They also promoted 'Ottomanism' - giving all citizens equal treatment, including religious freedom.

  Greece won independence from the 1821-32 war. Although the Congress of Berlin limited Russia's winnings, Montenegro, Serbia and Romania became independent states. Whilst Bosnia-Herzegovina was technically still an Ottoman province, it was occupied and administered by Austria.

  When the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece in the 1897 Greco-Turkish war, the Great Powers intervened to deny Turkey an opportunity to reclaim its losses in the Balkans.

  After Abdul Hamid ruthlessly crushed the Ilinden Uprising in Macedonia, Austria and Russia signed the Murzsteg agreement, allocating non-Ottoman officers to keep the peace impartially, highlighting the Sultan's weakness internationally. Abdul Hamid's response to the Ilinden Uprising demonstrated his uncompromising approach to minorities (millats) and went on to breed more extremist nationalist groups. Young Turks argued a representative parliament was necessary so millats could express their grievances peacefully.
• What events forced the Young Turks to revolt in 1908?

  In 1906, Mustafa Kemal, an army officer, formed a secret society in Damascus called Vatan, (Fatherland). In 1907, it merged with existing reform groups to make the Committee of Union and Progress. However, the CUP members were far from united. In 1908, the Great Powers met in Estonia to discuss further intervention in Macedonia to help calm the region. Facing imminent loss of more territory, the Young Turks had to act fast.
• How did the Young Turk Revolution unfold?

  In July 1908, Ottoman troops stationed in Salonika mutinied, having been unpaid for months. When they demanded the restoration of the 1876-8 constitution, further mutinies swept Macedonia. Threatened with a march on Constantinople, the Sultan was forced to concede. As the capital was swept with joyous citizens chanting slogans like 'Liberty, Equality, Fraternity', rebels temporarily put aside their differences to celebrate revolution.

  In April 1909, conservative Muslims launched a counter-revolution against the secular regime with the objective of restoring the Sultan's powers. Although the uprising was crushed, it suggested that Ottoman brotherhood hastened the empire's collapse. Thereafter Turkish nationalism prevailed among the Young Turks: religious freedoms were restricted and the Law of Associations, passed in August 1909, banned any political organisations formed on the basis of ethnicity or nationality.
• What were the consequences of the Young Turk Revolution, (not the Bosnian Crisis)?

  Bulgaria declared full independence from the Ottoman Empire. Realising they would likely be defeated if they engaged Bulgaria, the Young Turks didn't contest it.

  Greece proclaimed union with Crete in October 1908, which it failed to do unopposed in the 1897 Greco-Turkish war.
• How strong was the British economy before WW1?

  Largest empire - abundance of natural resources and new markets to sell goods and services.

  Royal Navy - naval supremacy gave Britain an enlarged share of world trade., (although its share of world trade was falling).

  Strikes - trade unions increasingly militant in 1900s.

  Smaller workforce than USA or Germany.

  Slow to develop new technologies such as automobiles and chemicals.