psychology

• paper one cognition and behavior topic one memory episodic memory semantic memory and procedural memory are the three primary types of memory these types of memory are used to make up long-term memory
• Episodic memory


  A type of long-term memory that involves the ability to recall specific events experiences and situations from our past
• Episodic memory


  • Holidays
  • Autobiographical memory
• Semantic memory


  Our general knowledge and understanding of the world, involving the ability to recall facts Concepts and ideas that are not tied to a specific event or experience
• Semantic memory


  • Knowing the sky is blue
  • Understanding the meaning of words
  • Knowing historical events
• Procedural memory


  Our ability to learn and remember how to perform various motor skills and actions, often referred to as muscle memory
• Procedural memory


  • Riding a bike
  • Typing on a keyboard
  • Playing a musical instrument
• Encoding and storage of memories


  1. Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in the brain

  2. Storage: Memories stored in different regions of the brain depending on the type of memory

  3. Retrieval: Accessing stored memories by reactivating the neural code
• Multi-store model of memory

  • Consists of three separate stores: Sensory register, Short-term memory, Long-term memory
  • Information passes through each store in a linear fashion
• Sensory register


  First stage of memory processing, involves immediate and automatic recording of sensory information from the environment
• Short-term memory


  Second stage of memory processing, involves temporary storage of information that is currently being attended to or actively processed
• Long-term memory


  Final stage of memory processing, involves storage of information that has been rehearsed or processed in short-term memory
• Sensory register features


  • Coding: Information represented in the same form as received from the environment
  • Capacity: Very large, can hold vast amount of sensory information
  • Duration: Very short, a few hundred milliseconds to a few seconds
• Short-term memory features


  • Coding: Primarily encoded in the form of sound or speech-based representations
  • Capacity: Limited, about 7 plus or minus 2 items
  • Duration: Relatively short, 20 to 30 seconds unless rehearsed
• Long-term memory features


  • Coding: Encoded in various forms including semantic, visual, and acoustic
  • Capacity: Believed to be unlimited
  • Duration: Believed to be unlimited, some memories last a lifetime
• Serial position effect


  Tendency for people to remember items at the beginning and end of a sequence better than items in the middle
• Primacy effect


  Superior recall of items that appear at the beginning of a list
• Recency effect


  Superior recall of items that appear at the end of a list
• The Primacy effect is explained by the idea that the first few items in the list were more likely to be transferred into long-term memory due to their extended rehearsal time
• The Recency effect is explained by the fact that the last few items were still fresh in the participants' short-term memory when they were asked to recall them
• Strengths of Murdoch's study


  • Conducted in laboratory conditions, establishing cause and effect
  • Supported by research with amnesiacs, showing Primacy effect is linked to long-term memory
• Limitation of Murdoch's study


  • Artificial task of learning a list of words, not meaningful information
• Reconstructive memory


  Memory is not an exact recording of past events, but a construction based on our previous experiences, beliefs, and knowledge
• Effort after meaning


  People's natural tendency to try and make sense of new information and integrate it with their existing knowledge and beliefs
• Schema


  Mental framework or organizational structure that helps us process and remember information
• Bartlett's study demonstrated the importance of schema in memory recall and provided evidence for the idea that memory is a constructive process influenced by pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, and cultural background
• Interference


  New information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information, including proactive interference and retroactive interference
• Context


  Contextual cues can affect the accuracy of memory, as memories may be easier to recall in the same physical or emotional state as when they were encoded
• False memories


  Occur when an individual recalls something that did not actually happen or remembers an event differently from how it occurred, influenced by factors like leading suggestions, suggestive language, and incorporation of misinformation
• Sensation refers to the process of receiving and detecting sensory input from the environment through our sensory organs, while perception involves the higher-level cognitive processes of organizing and interpreting sensory information
• Monocular depth cues


  Visual cues that help us perceive depth and distance using only one eye, including height in plane, relative size, and occlusion
• Sensation and perception


  An area of discussion in psychology as to whether there is a difference between the two
• Monocular depth cues


  • Visual cues that help us perceive depth and distance using only one eye
  • Include height in plane, relative size, occlusion, and linear perspective
• Height in plane


  The placement of objects in a scene in relation to the horizon or ground, with objects higher in the visual field perceived as farther away and those lower as closer
• Relative size


  Using the size of familiar objects as a reference to determine their distance, with objects appearing smaller perceived as farther away and those appearing larger as closer
• Occlusion


  Using overlapping objects to determine their relative distance, with the covered object perceived as farther away than the object covering it
• Linear perspective


  The way parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, providing cues about the distance and depth of a scene
• Binocular depth cues


  • Visual cues that rely on the coordination of both eyes and enable us to perceive depth and distance in three-dimensional space
  • Include retinal disparity and convergence
• Retinal disparity


  The slight difference in the image received by each eye due to their slightly different perspectives, which the brain combines to create a single three-dimensional image
• Convergence


  The inward movement of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects, which the brain uses to estimate the distance of an object