BIO 2

• Sexual Reproduction


  Requires a male and a female, however there are hermaphroditic creatures throughout the animal kingdom
• Flowers

  • Contain male sex organs (stamen)
  • Contain female sex organs (pistil)
• Pollination


  Process where flowering plants reproduce sexually
• Self-pollination


  Happens when a plant's own pollen fertilizes its own ovules
• Cross-pollination


  Happens when the wind or animals move pollen from one plant to fertilize the ovules on a different plant
• Hermaphrodites


  Animals possessing both male and female reproductive organs
• Self-fertilization


  More common in animals that have limited mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams
• Vegetative Propagation


  • A sexual method of plant reproduction that occurs in its leaves, roots and stem
  • Can occur through regeneration of specific vegetative parts of a parent plant
• Fragmentation


  • Involves new plants growing from small parts of the parent plant that fall to the ground
  • One of the ways that plants like liverworts and mosses reproduce
• Asexual Reproduction


  • Generally limited to invertebrates
  • Occurs through fission, budding, fragmentation and parthenogenesis
• Fission


  Organism appears to split itself into two parts, and regenerate the missing parts of each new organisms
• Planarians


  • Species of turbellarian flatworms
• Budding


  Form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of the body leading to a separation of the "bud" from the original organism
• Budding


  • Occurs commonly in hydras and corals
• Fragmentation


  Breaking of an individual into parts, reproduction through fragmentation is observed in sponges, some cnidarians, turbellarians, echinoderms and annelids
• Parthenogenesis


  Form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into an individual without being fertilized
• Parthenogenesis


  • Occurs in water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, ants, wasps and bees
• Embryonic Development of a simple Animal


  Fertilization, Zygote, Morula, Blastula, Gastrula
• Embryonic Development of a Plant


  Pollen carried from stamens to stigma, Suspensor, Globular Stage
• Plant Nutrition


  Providing and obtaining the food necessary for the health and growth of plants
• Essential Elements for plant growth

  • Macronutrients: carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur
  • Micronutrients: iron, manganese, boron, copper, zinc, chlorine, nickel, cobalt, silicon, sodium
• Mycorrhizal Association


  Mutualistic relationship that involves fungi and all plant roots
• Photosynthesis


  Process in which green and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy
• Animal Nutrition


  Animals obtain their nutrition from the consumption of other organisms
• Carbohydrates


  Serve as energy stores in which the energy to form ATP is derived
• Vitamins


  Organic compounds that are only needed in minute amounts but essential for metabolic functions
• Digestion and Absorption


  Multi-step process involving the conversion of the food consumed to the nutrients required
• Mechanical Digestion


  Involves the physical breakdown of food but does not alter its chemical makeup
• Chemical Digestion


  Complex process that reduces food into its chemical building blocks
• Human Digestive System


  • Mouth and Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Pancreas, Liver, Large Intestines
• Saliva


  Contains enzymes that aid in the digestion of food
• Stomach


  Muscular bag that churns the food to help break it down mechanically and chemically
• Small Intestine


  Food is mixed with more digestive enzymes in the duodenum, absorbed in the jejunum and ileum
• Pancreas


  Secretes the hormone insulin, which helps to regulate the amount of sugar in the blood
• Liver


  Roles include breaking down fats, processing proteins and carbohydrates, filtering and processing impurities, drugs and toxins, and generation of glucose
• Large Intestine


  Receives waste once all nutrients have been absorbed
• Gas exchange


  The process by which gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, move between an organism and its environment
• Leaf


  • In the leaf of the plant, an abundant supply of carbon dioxide must be present and oxygen from photosynthesis must be removed
• Gas exchange in leaves

  1. Gases pass through pores called stomata

  2. Stomata are surrounded by two specialized structures called guard cells

  3. Stomata are abundant on the lower surface of the leaf

  4. Stomata usually open during the day when the rate of photosynthesis is highest
• Lenticels


  Small openings in the bark of woody plants that allow gas exchange