Classical conditioning

• –Learning defn = is commonly described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
•  - learning is an ongoing process throughout our lives, enabling us to adapt and cope in an ever-changing world
• learning can occur Intentionally or unintentionally
• learning can be active ( eg learning timetables) or passive ( eg hearing something on the news about a heat wave)
• Classical conditioning: Refers to the type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli. Learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce
• Classical conditioning is often described as a learning process that occurs in a series of three phases  - before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning
• The unconditioned stimulus  (UCS) : is any stimulus that produces that consistently produces a naturally occurring, automatic response
• The unconditioned response (UCR) : is the response that occurs naturally/automatically when the UCS is presented. It is a reflexive, involuntary response
• the neutral stimulus (NS): is any stimulus that does not normally produce any response.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): the stimulus that was ‘neutral’ at the start elicits the same response to that cause by the UCS – a response that now has become a
• Conditioned response (CR): the learned response that is produced by the CS.
• The meat powder (UCS) produces salivation (UCR)

   Now Pavlov rings a bell (NS) every time the dog is given the meat (UCS) powder (repeatedly)

  Eventually the dog associates/pairs bell (NS) with the meat powder (UCS)

  So when the bell (NS) is presented without the meat powder (UCS) it evokes salivation in the dog

  So now that the learning  (association/pairing) has taken place, what was the NS has become the CS.

  And now when the bell (CS) is presented alone it evokes salivation (CR)
• Pavlov distinguished several key processes involved in classical conditioning :

  Extinction

  Stimulus generalization

  Stimulus discrimation

  Sontaneous recovery
• Extinction:

  the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented. Extinction occurs when a CS no longer produces the CR – it appears to have been extinguished
• Spontaneous recovery:

  The re-appearance of a CR when the CS is presented again after a rest period ( ie when the CS is not presented for a few trials and then the CR has been extinguished)
• Stimulus generalization:

  the tendency for for another stimulus that is similar to original CS that produces a similar to the CR

  the greater the similarity between the stimuli the the greater the chance that generalization will occur
• Stimulus discrimination:

  occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.
• Aim (PAVLOV) :

  Pavlov's experiment with dogs aimed to study and demonstrate the concept of classical conditioning. Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) with a reflexive response (such as salivation) by repeatedly pairing the two stimuli together.
• •MethodPavlov’s dogs were individually situated in secluded environments, secured within harnesses. A food bowl was positioned before them, and a device was employed to gauge the frequency of their salivary gland secretions.
• Method (pt2)

  The date from these measurements were systematically recorded into a rotating drum, allowing Pavlov to meticulously monitor the rate of salivation throughout the course of the experiments
• Method pt 3

  ·  First the dogs were presented with food, and they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response. (i.e. a stimulus response connection that requires no learning)
• method (pt4)

  • By itself the metronome, which was the neural stimulus did not elicit a response from the dogs

  ·  Next, Pavlov began conditioning procedure, whereby the NS was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented the bell on its own
• method (pt5)

  as you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an increase in salivation. so the dog has learned an association between the metronome and the food and a new behaviour has been learned. Because this response was learning it is called a conditioned response The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus
• Findings:

  ·  Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time (such as a bell)
• Behaviourism: The principles of classical conditioning have been used to explain a wide range of behaviours, from phobias to food aversions.
• Therapy Techniques: Techniques based on classical conditioning, such as systematic desensitisation and exposure therapy, have been developed to treat a variety of psychological disorders
• In these therapies, a conditioned response (such as fear) can be gradually “unlearned” by changing the association between a specific stimulus and its response.
• This led to the Little Albert experiment: demonstrated that emotional responses can be classically conditioned
• Educational strategies: liker repetitive learning and rote memorisation, can be seen ad applications of principles of classical conditioning
• Marketing and advertising: Principles from Pavlov's conditioning experiments are often used in advertising to build brand recognition and positive associations
• Although there is supporting evidence, like the little Albert, generalising and applying findings of dogs to humans is very difficult. Therefore, generalisations between humans and animals must be made with caution. Whilst conditioning g may be useful in explaining animal behaviour, it may not be very useful in explaining humans
• Classical conditioning is limited to explaining how the reflex responses become associated with new stimuli. However, much human behaviour is voluntary and therefore cannot be explained by classical conditioning. There must be other learning processes involved
• Classical conditioning ignores the role of cognitive and biological factors which have also shown to have played a role in learning
• Ethical considerations

  • Use of dogs
  • Surgery: secured harness= unethical
  • Albert ⇒ no informed consent. No voluntary participation, no withdrawal rights, no debriefing, causing psychological harm