Gender Paper 3

• Sex


  The biological status of being male or female. It is determined at the moment of conception by chromosomes. Sex cannot be changed. Gender re-assignment or hormone treatment may change appearance or behaviour, but not sex.
• Gender


  The psychological, social and cultural status of being masculine or feminine. It includes attitudes, behaviours and social roles associated with being male or female. It is at least partly learned (nurture).
• For most people their chromosomal sex matches their sense of being male or female. However:
• Exceptions


  • There may be chromosomal or hormonal issues which make determining sex at birth difficult
  • For some people gender develops in an atypical way leading to gender identity disorder (GD)
• Sex Role Stereotypes


  A set of shared expectations that people within a society or culture hold about what is acceptable or usual behaviour for males and females
• Sex role stereotypes


  • Girls are good at art, boys are good at maths
  • Women can't read maps
  • Men don't like to discuss their feelings
• These sex role stereotypes can be problematic because people tend to fulfil the expectations that others have of them, so they may restrict individuals from achieving their potential. Those who do choose counter stereotypical roles (e.g female engineers or male nurses) may suffer prejudice and discrimination. They also prevent us from seeing the true qualities of individuals because we assume they have certain characteristics based purely on their sex. Therefore, we may make mistakes if we use these stereotypes to pre-judge others.
• Androgyny


  An equal mix of gender role characteristics. People who show a combination of stereotypically masculine and stereotypically feminine qualities.
• Androgyny


  • It means individuals have a wider repertoire of behaviours to draw on in different situations, so are more likely to be able to respond flexibly and appropriately
  • Androgynous people may have better psychological adjustment than 'sex-typed' individuals who score highly on either masculine or feminine traits but not both, conforming to traditional gender stereotypes
• Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)


  A questionnaire developed by Bem in 1974 to measure androgyny. It contains 3 subscales: 20 characteristics rated as desirable for men, 20 rated as desirable for women, and 20 rated equally desirable for both.
• Participants complete the 60 item questionnaire by saying how true each characteristic is of them, on a 7 point scale. Those scoring high on either masculine or feminine characteristics are classed as masculine/feminine. Those who score low on masculinity and femininity are classed as undifferentiated. Those who score high on both masculine and feminine traits are considered androgynous.
• Evaluation of BSRI


  • High test-retest reliability, suggesting it is a reliable tool
  • Desirable masculine and feminine traits may have changed since the 1970s, so it may lack temporal validity
  • It is culturally biased as the items were decided by American students
  • Self-report method of questionnaires may lack validity due to issues like demand characteristics and social desirability
• Evidence supporting Bem's idea that androgyny is helpful comes from Prakash et al (2010) who found a positive correlation between androgyny and mental health in Indian women. Those with relatively high masculinity scores as well as femininity (therefore androgynous) had less depression than those with high femininity and low masculinity scores, supporting Bem's idea that Androgyny is psychologically healthy.
• Chromosomes


  Babies who receive an X chromosome from both parents (XX) will develop as females. Those who receive a Y from their father and an X from their mother (XY) will develop as males, thus determining sex.
• Hormones


  In males the presence of the Y chromosome causes production of androgens (male hormones) like testosterone, leading to development of the testes and penis. In females the absence of male hormones leads to development of ovaries and a vagina, and the ovaries produce the hormone oestrogen.
• Oxytocin


  Sometimes known as the 'love hormone', it is related to orgasm, breast feeding, and promoting bonding in males and females. It makes people less anxious and more sociable.
• The role of chromosomes in sex and gender is supported by the case of David Reimer, who was chromosomally male at birth but raised as a girl after a circumcision accident, and later reverted to being male.
• Evidence for the role of hormones comes from studies showing that transgender individuals who were injected with hormones of the sex they were transitioning to showed changes in aggression and visuospatial skills.
• However, research also shows the effect of expectations and social factors, suggesting hormones are not the only factor influencing gender behaviour.
• Klinefelter's Syndrome


  Affects 1 in 600 males who have a chromosomal abnormality with three sex chromosomes, XXY. They tend to be taller, have weaker muscles, reduced body hair, and often have poor verbal skills, difficulty coping with stress, and weak memory and problem solving.
• Turner's Syndrome


  Affects 1 in 2000 girls, caused by having only one X chromosome rather than two. They tend to be shorter, have normal external genitalia but undeveloped ovaries, and often have superior reading ability but poor spatial and mathematical skills, as well as poor social skills.
• Research into atypical sex chromosome patterns has contributed to the nature/nurture debate, but the relationship between the chromosomal abnormalities and behavioural differences is not necessarily causal, as environmental and social influences may also play a role.
• Continued research into these syndromes is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses, leading to better outcomes.
• However, research into these syndromes can be criticised for ignoring individual differences, as some individuals may present with 'mosaic' forms of the syndromes with less severe symptoms.
• both syndromes is the assumption that everyone develops the same associated chromosomes. Research into both syndromes can be criticised for ignoring individual differences.
• Some males develop 'mosaic' Klinefelter Syndrome which occurs when the additional X chromosome only appears in some of their cells rather than all of them, reducing the severity of their symptoms.
• Individuals with Turner Syndrome may also present with a 'mosaic' form of the syndrome, where the X chromosome is only missing from some bodily cells rather than all of them.
• This suggests that when diagnosing or researching either syndrome, researchers must consider that there are individual differences and variations of the condition, and avoid assuming that everyone will experience the same physical and psychological characteristics.
• Cognitive theories


  Explain behaviour in terms of thinking
• Kohlberg's Cognitive-developmental theory


  Claims that a child's understanding of gender develops with age, alongside his or her intellectual (cognitive) development, as the child matures
• Kohlberg's stages of gender development

  1. Stage 1 - Gender identity (from around 2 years)

  2. Stage 2 - Gender Stability (from around 4 years)

  3. Stage 3 - Gender Constancy (from around 6 years)
• Gender identity


  The child develops a basic sense of gender identity. They can label themselves and others as male or female.
• Gender Stability


  The child realises that their own gender is permanent and irreversible.
• Gender Constancy


  The child realises that gender is constant in different situations, even if an individual changes their hair or clothing.
• Kohlberg believed that children will only develop gender roles once their cognitive abilities have developed enough to really understand that gender is not usually something that can change.
• Bussey and Bandura (1992) suggest that gender appropriate behaviour starts much earlier than Kohlberg suggested.
• It is possible that Kohlberg was correct in suggesting that ideas about gender change overtime with children's cognitive development, but in fact these changes may occur at a faster rate than originally suggested.
• Kohlberg's theory may show historical bias, or in other words it may lack temporal validity.
• Gender Schema Theory


  Children become aware of their own gender and establish gender identity at about 2 years old. They then start to look for information around them to learn what is involved in being a girl or a boy, so that from about 3 years old they develop gender schemas (or stereotypes).
• Gender schemas


  Mental representations (or 'packets' of knowledge and beliefs) about the characteristics of each gender and of gender-appropriate behaviour.