all approaches

• cognitive approach assumptions


  - behaviour is a product of information processing

  - the brain can be compared to a computer (computer analogy)
• behaviourist and social learning approach assumptions


  - behaviour is a learned response from environmental stimuli

  - behaviour can be learned from observation and imitation (Albert Bandura 1977)
• social approach assumptions


  - behaviour occurs in a social context, influenced by people around us

  - wider culture and society influences people's behaviour
• biological approach assumptions


  - behaviour is influenced by neurochemistry, CNS and genes

  - behaviour is a product of evolution, inheriting naturally selected genes across generations (Charles Darwin 1859)
• encoding


  there are 3 ways information can be encoded, changed so it can be stored:

  - visual (picture)

  - acoustic (sound)

  - semantic (meaning)
• duration


  length of time you hold information for
• capacity


  how much your memory can store/hold
• sensory register


  - these are the memory stores for our 5 senses

  - the two ways we encode are iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory)

  - duration is less than 0.5s but has a high capacity

  - little info passes from sensory register to memory system but will if you pay attention to it
• short-term memory (STM)


  - coding = acoustic

  - capacity = on average 7 (+/-2)

  - duration = 18-30 seconds (unless rehearsed)

  - if we rehearse info long enough it goes into our LTM
• long-term memory (LTM)


  - coding = semantic

  - capacity = unlimited

  - duration = up to a lifetime/unlimited

  - when we want to recall something from our LTM it has to be transferred back to our STM by retrieval
• recall


  - information retrieved from memory with little to no external sources

  - therefore recall is complex
• recognition


  - a form of memory retrieval where someone identifies a person, object or thing they haven't seen before

  - easier than recall as can connect it to other memories e.g. multiple choice questions
• shortening


  parts of memory that don't fit in with a schema because unfamiliar or unexpected so left out so what you remember is shorter
• confabulation


  parts of a memory invented to fill in memory gaps which are guided by schemas to make better sense of the memory
• rationalisation


  recalling information in a distorted/changed way to fit with your schema so that strange/unfamiliar memories make more sense
• Conclusions from research into reconstructive memory - why would research in this area be useful?


  Reconstructive memory - good explanation for memory in the real world - memory teaches us to be cautious when trusting the evidence given by eyewitnesses - can be altered by a person's previous experiences / schemas.
• cognitive scripts


  collections of schemas which link together to produce a series of expectations relevant to the situation you are in.

  - guide you on what to expect and how to behave in certain situations

  - they develop over time after repeated experience with situations

  - we recall these scripts from memory without being aware
• memory scripts


  a schema for how to do something for an event (counting, reading, doing math problems)
• person perception


  schema for what someone or something will look like
• fundamental attribution error


  to explain events based on disposition al, personality, innate, internal factors whilst ignoring or downplaying situational, external and environmental factors
• hostile attribution bias


  the tendency to perceive someone as threatening when they are in fact neutral, leading to the individual's response to be aggression
• confirmation bias


  a tendency to search for information that supports our personal beliefs whilst ignoring contradictory information
• importance of cues


  stimuli that support us in memory retrieval. cues help you access memories from your LTM and bring them to your conscious awareness (STM).

  - when we encode a new memory we we store info that occured around it e.g. how we felt or the place we were in
• context/environmental cues


  - explains why an individual can recall more information

  - if the information about the environment was stored at the same time as where the information was learnt, returning to the environment provides information to trigger recall and make recall easier
• cognitive priming


  exposure to a stimulus effects our later response to the same or related stimulus
• semantic priming


  two stimuli are similar or have the same features
• associative priming


  prime and related but not semantically (related by meaning)
• repetition priming


  encounter the prime your process it more quickly when you see it or hear it again than you otherwise would have done
• internal cues


  the way we feel or the state we were are in can impact (more or less) recall. if we are in a positive psychological state (internal) state when learning the information, and in the same positive psychological state when trying to recall the information, this acts a trigger to make recall easier.
• normative social influence


  we accept the norms of the group as we want to be liked by other group members and want to avoid rejection by group members.

  - NSI is an emotional process as it is about how you feel

  - it is stronger in stressful situations as we have a greater need for social support
• informational social influence


  we may conform to the views of others as we want to be right.

  - this means ISI is a cognitive process as it's about what you think

  - ISI is most likely to occur in situations new to you (don't know whats right) or where what is right is ambiguous. or when one person is regarded more of an expert
• internalisation


  we privately as-well as publicly agree and change our view to behave like r to follow group members. we continue to conform even when group members aren't present.

  - so PERMANENT type of conformity

  - most likely to occur due to ISI as we think the group is RIGHT.
• compliance


  sometimes we just 'go along' - we publicly change our opinion but privately do not change our opinion/behaviour.

  - TEMPORARY type of conformity as agreement with majority ends when group isn't present as there is no longer group pressure.

  - most likely to occur due to NSI as we want to be accepted by the group
• identification


  - we privately change some of our views as well as publicly

  - we conform only as long as we are part of the group

  - we conform as we identify with the group and value them.
• social categorisation


  we place individuals into social groups depending on their shared characteristics
• in and out groups


  categorising people in our own group is known as in groups. categorising people into the other group is known as out groups. categorising people into an in group and out group is social categorisation and can form stereotypes
• How are stereotypes formed?

  1. social learning theory states we learn these stereotypes from social information e.g. parents and friends. we observe and imitate them.

  2. categorise people into groups based on their shared characteristics. generalised beliefs about certain groups.

  3. individuals categorise themselves or others as members of groups. negative beliefs about other groups (out groups) allow us to view our groups (in groups) as more positive.
• stereotypes


  a fixed view we develop of a person based on inaccurate and incorrect perceived social categories
• positive effect of stereotypes


  they simplify our interactions with other people in our complex social world.

  - we assume individuals we meet have certain characteristics and this saves time and cognitive processing efforts
• negative effects of stereotypes


  - they lead to prejudice (racism and sexism). this is an attitude that is usually negative towards a particular group of people. usually the OUTGROUP. based on characteristics that we assume all of the social group share

  - they distort and bias our social judgements

  - they affect our behaviour as they are self fulfilling. we end up behaving towards other people in line with our stereotypes. the individuals may respond by behaving in ways which confirm the stereotypes.

  - they lead to discrimination. this is treating properly unfairly on the basis of their membership of a particular group. discrimination is the resulting behaviour from prejudice.