Prelim

• What are the two types of cells described in the study material?

  Germline and somatic cells
• Why can therapeutic stem cells become any cell in a tissue?

  Because they are pluripotent
• What ethical issues are associated with using embryonic stem cells?

  Concerns about the moral status of embryos
• How are secondary tumors formed?

  From the spread of cancer cells
• What is the DNA base pairing rule?

  A pairs with T, C pairs with G
• When does DNA replication occur?

  Prior to cell division
• Why is DNA replication important for cell division?

  It ensures each cell has identical DNA
• What are the requirements for DNA replication?

  Template strands, primers, nucleotides, enzymes, ATP
• What is the role of DNA template strands in replication?

  They provide the sequence for new strands
• What is the function of primers in DNA replication?

  To initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands
• What do free nucleotides do in DNA replication?

  They are added to the growing DNA strand
• What is the role of DNA polymerase in replication?

  It synthesizes new DNA strands
• What does ligase do during DNA replication?

  It joins Okazaki fragments together
• What is the result of one cycle of PCR?

  It doubles the number of DNA molecules
• How do you calculate the copies of DNA produced after PCR cycles?

  Use the formula $2^n$, where n is cycles
• What is the structure of RNA?

  Single-stranded with ribose sugar

  found in nucleus (cytoplasm)

  uracil instead of thymine

  3 types

  short strand
• Where does protein synthesis occur?

  At the ribosome
• What do miRNA molecules contain?

  A triplet of bases called a codon
• What do tRNA molecules contain?

  A triplet of bases called an anticodon
• Describe the process of protein synthesis.

  From DNA in nucleus to protein at ribosome
• What is a polypeptide chain composed of?

  Amino acids linked by peptide bonds
• How is the 3D structure of a protein maintained?

  By hydrogen bonds and other interactions
• What do all DNA gene sequences start and end with?

  Start codon and end codon
• What does a missense mutation involve?

  Swapping one amino acid for another
• What is a nonsense mutation?

  It introduces a premature stop codon
• What are the types of chromosome structure mutations?

  Deletion, duplication, translocation, inversion
• How can bioinformatics assist doctors?

  By sequencing a person's entire genome helping doctors to prescribe most effective medicine and dosage For individuals
• What do the prostate gland and seminal vesicles produce?

  Fluids that maintain sperm motility
• What hormones does the pituitary gland release in females?

  FSH and LH
• What hormones does the pituitary gland release in males?

  FSH and ICSH
• What hormones are released by the ovary?

  Oestrogen
• What does the follicle in corpus luteum release?

  Progesterone
• What hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle?

  FSH, LH, oestrogen, progesterone
• How does negative feedback affect menstrual hormones?

  It regulates hormone levels to maintain balance
• What is intensive feedback in testosterone control?

  It maintains stable testosterone levels
• What are fertility drugs?

  Medications to enhance reproductive capabilities
• How is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis used?

  To detect single gene disorders
• Where are sex-linked genes located?

  On the sex chromosomes
• Why are sex-linked conditions more prevalent in males?

  Because males have one X chromosome
• What do the terms genotype and phenotype mean?

  Genotype is genetic makeup; phenotype is expression