Bot

• Kingdom Monera includes prokaryotic, heterotrophic, unicellular organisms with non-cellulosic cell walls like bacteria
• Kingdom Protista consists of single-celled eukaryotes showing autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition, including Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds, and Protozoans
• Kingdom Fungi comprises heterotrophic organisms with cell walls composed of chitin and polysaccharides, with characteristics like hyphae, mycelium, and lichens
• Viruses are nucleoproteins with infectious genetic material, with examples of virus diseases being Mumps, smallpox, herpes, and influenza, as well as viroids and prions causing diseases
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analyzed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego is the moral component of the psyche, representing internalized societal values and standards
• Prions are abnormally folded proteins causing diseases like Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
• Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic, largely aquatic organisms reproducing asexually through zoospores and sexually through isogamous, anisogamous, or oogamous methods
• Economic importance of algae:

  • Fix at least half of the carbon dioxide on earth
  • Primary producers
  • Produce hydrocolloids like algin and carrageen
  • Agar from red algae like Gelidium and Gracilaria used in ice-creams and jellies
  • Chlorella used as a food supplement
• Classification of Algae:

  • Chlorophyceae (Green algae): Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Chara
  • Phaeophyceae (Brown algae): Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus
  • Rhodophyceae (Red algae): Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria, Gelidium
• Bryophytes, like liverworts and mosses, are called amphibians of the plant kingdom due to their dependence on water for sexual reproduction
• Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns, possessing vascular tissues, xylem and phloem, with sporangia developed on sporophylls
• Morphology of Flowering Plants:

  • Tap root system in dicots, fibrous root system in monocots, and adventitious roots
  • Venation types: reticulate (dicots) and parallel (monocots)
  • Types of leaves: simple and compound (pinnate, palmate)
  • Phyllotaxy: alternate, opposite, whorled
  • Inflorescence types: racemose, cymose
• Types of Flowers:

  • Actinomorphic (can be cut into two equal halves through any radial plane): Mustard, Chilli
  • Zygomorphic (can be cut into two equal halves only through one vertical plane): Pea, Bean, Cassia
  • Asymmetric (cannot be cut into two equal halves): Canna
  • Aestivation: the arrangement of sepals or petals in a floral bud
• Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study on attachment:

  • Aim: identify stages of attachment / find a pattern in the development of an attachment between infants and parents
  • Participants: 60 babies from Glasgow
  • Procedure: analysed interactions between infants and carers
  • Findings: babies of parents/carers with 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to have formed an attachment
• Freud's superego represents internalized societal values and standards
• Cell Theory:

  • Matthias Schleiden: Plant body composed of different kinds of cells
  • Theodore Schwann: Animal and plant bodies composed of cells and products of cells
  • Rudolf Virchow: Cells divide and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula)
• Permanent Tissues:

  • Simple Permanent Tissue: Parenchyma (photosynthesis, storage, secretion)
  • Complex Permanent Tissue: Xylem (tracheids, vessels, fibers, parenchyma) and Phloem (sieve tube elements, companion cells, fibers, parenchyma)
• Tissue Systems:

  • Epidermal Tissue System: epidermal cells, stomata, trichomes, hairs
  • Ground Tissue System: Mesophyll Tissue
  • Vascular Tissue System: Xylem, Phloem
• Epidermal Tissue System:

  • Stomata: minute openings on leaf epidermis
  • Guard cells support stomata
  • Subsidiary cells surround guard cells
  • Guard cells in dicot leaf are bean-shaped, in monocot leaf are dumb-bell-shaped
• Ground Tissue System:

  • Mesophyll Tissue is differentiated in dicot leaf
• Primary Characters of Stem, Root & Leaf:

  • Stem: Conjoint Vascular bundles, Endarch Vascular bundles, Radial Vascular bundles, Exarch Vascular bundles
  • Root: Sclerenchymatous hypodermis, numerous vascular bundles
  • Leaf: Chlorenchymatous mesophyll, isobilateral leaf, stomata on both upper & lower epidermis
• Theodore Schwann stated that the bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells
• Rudolf Virchow's contribution to cell theory:

  • Cells divide and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula)
• Concepts of Cell Theory:

  (i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells

  (ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells
• Prokaryotic Cell characteristics:

  • No membrane-bound nucleus
  • Absence of membrane-bound cell organelles
  • Presence of mesosomes, plasmids, and 70S ribosomes
• Mesosomes are involved in cell wall formation, DNA replication, respiration, and secretion
• Cell membrane structure:

  • Composed mainly of lipids and proteins
  • Phospholipids arranged in a bilayer with polar heads outward and hydrophobic tails inward
  • Membrane proteins classified as integral (buried) and peripheral (surface)
• Functions of cell membrane:

  • Transport of molecules
  • Involved in both active and passive transport
• Endomembrane System includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes, and vacuoles
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) types:

  • RER: involved in protein synthesis and secretion
  • SER: involved in lipid/hormone synthesis
• Golgi apparatus functions:

  • Packaging of materials
  • Modification of proteins
  • Formation of glycoproteins & glycolipids
• Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes called hydrolases that act in acidic pH
• Mitochondria are double membrane-bound organelles, site of aerobic respiration, and produce energy in the form of ATP
• Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis and contain stroma, grana, and enzymes for dark and light reactions
• Plastids in plant cells include chloroplasts (green, contain chlorophyll), chromoplasts (colored, contain carotenoids), and leucoplasts (colorless, store nutrients)
• Ribosomes are composed of RNA and proteins, with eukaryotic ribosomes being 80S and prokaryotic ribosomes being 70S
• Cytoskeleton provides mechanical support, motility, and maintains cell shape through microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
• Nucleus contains nucleolus, chromatin, and is the site of rRNA synthesis
• Chromosomes contain DNA and histones, condense during cell division, and have a centromere and kinetochores