bio

• Organic compounds primarily contain carbon and hydrogen
• Organic compounds are a large class of chemical compounds where one or more carbon atoms are covalently linked to atoms of other elements, most commonly hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen
• At the beginning of the 19th Century, compounds were classified as inorganic or organic based on their origin
• Organic compounds contain carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and sometimes oxygen (O), sulfur (S), nitrogen (N), or a halogen
• Formulas of organic compounds are written with carbon first, followed by hydrogen and any other elements
• Organic compounds have low melting and boiling points, are nonpolar molecules with weak attractions, not soluble in water, and are less dense than water
• Inorganic compounds are composed of minerals, contain elements other than carbon and hydrogen, have high melting and boiling points, are usually soluble in water, and most do not burn in air
• Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen, with every carbon atom forming four bonds
• The VSEPR theory predicts 3-D molecular geometry based on the number of valence shell electron bond pairs among the atoms in a molecule or ion
• The valence shell determines an atom's chemical behavior and its tendency to form bonds to achieve a full valence shell
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom's nucleus to pull electrons toward it, influencing the type of chemical bond formed
• Alkanes are a class of hydrocarbons with atoms connected only by single bonds, commonly used as fuels
• Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named using Greek prefixes, and their names end in -ane according to the IUPAC system
• Line-bond or skeletal formulas represent only the carbon skeleton in organic molecules, with carbon atoms as the ends of each line or as corners in a zigzag line
• Conformation refers to different arrangements during rotation of an atom about a single bond, seen in molecules like butane (C4H10)
• Cycloalkanes are cyclic hydrocarbons with two fewer hydrogen atoms than the corresponding alkanes, often drawn using skeletal formulas
• Alkanes with substituents can have branches or alkyl groups attached to the carbon chain, influencing the molecule's properties
• Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms
• Haloalkanes are named by replacing the ane ending of the corresponding alkane name with yl when a halogen atom is attached to a carbon chain
• Attachment is a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver

  
• Freud's superego is the moral component of the psyche, representing internalized societal values and standards
• Esters are organic compounds containing a carboxyl group (–COO–) linked to an alkyl or aryl group, typically formed by the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol

  
• Alkenes contain at least one double bond, changing the ending of the corresponding alkane name from -ane to -ene, e.g., Ethene (Ethylene)
• Alkynes have a triple bond, e.g., Ethyne (Acetylene), where each carbon atom in the triple bond is attached to one hydrogen atom
• Aromatic compounds like benzene consist of a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds
• Alcohols have a hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom, while thiols contain the functional group –SH bonded to a carbon atom
• Esters are similar to carboxylic acids but with the oxygen of the carboxyl group attached to a carbon, responsible for the odor and flavor of fruits
• Amines are derivatives of ammonia where carbon groups replace hydrogen atoms, while amides have the hydroxyl group of a carboxylic acid replaced by a nitrogen group
• Carbohydrates are classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, with monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose being the simplest form
• Carbohydrates are formed by plants through photosynthesis, where CO2 from air and water from soil combine to form sugar
• Emil Fisher studied carbohydrates, synthesizing many sugars and laying the foundation for sugar terminology
• Monosaccharides are single sugars classified based on the placement of the carbonyl group and the number of carbon atoms they contain
• Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides combined by glycosidic linkage, with examples like sucrose, lactose, and inverted sugar
• A table of the first 10 alkanes, acyclic hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2

  
• A table of common cycloalkanes: cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane, and cyclohexane

  
• An image of an ester, organic compounds containing a carboxyl group linked to an alkyl or aryl group, typically formed by the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol

  
• A table of different types of monosaccharides

  
• Common polysaccharides include Starch, cellulose, glycogen, and dextrin
• Glycogen, known as animal starch, is stored in muscle and liver, serving as reserve carbohydrates in animals
• Cellulose, the most abundant plant constituent, is made up of glucose units with beta1,4 linkages, has no nutritive value in humans but is crucial in human nutrition as a major constituent of dietary fiber