Lab

• Deoxyribonucleic acid


  What is DNA short for?
• Double helix made of two complementary strands


  What is the structure of DNA?
• Instructions for building and maintaining cells

  What does DNA store?
• Approximately 3.2 billion base pairs


  How many base pairs approximately make up the human genome?
• In the nucleus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria


  Where is DNA found in eukaryotic cells?
• Through an efficient DNA packaging system


  How is DNA packaged efficiently in eukaryotic cells?
• Prokaryotic cells


  In which type of cells is DNA not enclosed in a membranous envelope?
• One of a number of alternative forms of the same gene or genetic locus

  What is an allele?
• Yes, sometimes


  Can different alleles result in different observable traits?
• Little or no observable variation

  What is the usual result of most genetic variations?
• It means possessing two alleles for each gene, one inherited from each parent.


  What does it mean for an organism to be diploid?
• Homozygous


  When an organism has two identical alleles for a gene
• Heterozygous


  When an organism has two different alleles for a gene.
• To give an overview of the inheritance pattern and frequency of a suspected hereditary trait within a family.


  What is the purpose of a pedigree analysis?
• By symbols: circle for female, square for male. Filled symbols represent affected individuals, while empty symbols represent normal individuals.


  How are family members represented in a pedigree?
• he first affected family member who seeks medical attention or is being studied for a particular phenotype or disease.


  Who is a proband in a pedigree analysis?
• cancer


  not a single disease but encompasses many different diseases characterized by abnormal cell growth resulting from mutations in DNA.
• Mutagenic substances such as smoke, ionizing radiation, pollutants, and highly cancerogenic viruses that insert DNA into the host genome.


  What induces mutations in DNA leading to cancer?
• Cancer develops when cells acquire a complete set of mutations and begin to grow uncontrollably due to altered gene expression.


  how does cancer develop?
• Tumor suppressor gene


  are active in normal cells to prevent uncontrolled cell growth by inhibiting excess, inappropriate cell growth.
• Proto-oncogenes


  are positive cell-cycle regulators. When mutated, they can become oncogenes, leading to uncontrolled cell growth.
• 100


  How many different types of cancer are known in humans?
• pcr (Polymerase Chain Reaction)


  used to prepare billions of copies of specific DNA sequences, amplifying DNA samples for further analysis, such as DNA fingerprinting or genotyping.
• pcr


  ensures specificity through primers, which are designed to be complementary and anneal to specific regions on each side of the DNA region of interest.
• Gel electrophoresis


  used to separate charged macromolecules (such as DNA, RNA, or proteins) of different sizes and to estimate their length.
• Gel electrophoresis


  used to separate DNA or RNA molecules, which is necessary for tasks like DNA profiling or assessing RNA integrity.
• E-gel machine


  is used to perform gel electrophoresis, separating DNA fragments of different sizes for further analysis.
• Massively parallel sequencing


  what is another name for Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)?
• Reversible dye termination technology


  What is the primary technique employed by Illumina for DNA sequencing?
• Adapters


  What are the two short DNA molecules ligated to each end of the DNA sample in Illumina sequencing called?
• They serve as primer-docking sites for amplification during PCR and for binding to the flow cell.


  What is the purpose of adapters in Illumina sequencing?
• DNA clusters


  What term is used to describe the local clonal DNA colonies formed during Illumina sequencing?
• They are used to identify and sequence DNA bases during the sequencing process.


  What is the role of fluorescent dye-labeled nucleotides in Illumina sequencing?
• Fragmentation, end-repair, A-tailing, adapter ligation, PCR amplification


  What are the steps involved in sample preparation for Illumina sequencing?
• Cluster generation and sequencing


  What are the two main processes following sample preparation in Illumina sequencing?
• Bridge PCR


  A process where a DNA molecule bound to a short DNA molecule bends over and binds to another molecule, creating a "bridge" that is amplified by polymerase.
• Cluster


  A group of DNA molecules, each with the same sequence, formed during bridge PCR amplification on the flow cell surface.
• Flush


  The step in cluster generation where DNA molecules that are not of interest (e.g., those bound to a different short DNA molecule) are washed away, leaving only DNA clusters of identical sequences.
• Flow cell


  A plate surface to which DNA molecules are anchored for amplification and sequencing, containing a high density of short DNA strands to which DNA molecules can bind.
• Clonal amplification


  The process by which DNA molecules in a cluster are amplified to create multiple copies of the same DNA sequence, ensuring that all DNA molecules within a cluster are identical.