Gender

• sex and gender - sex

  a person’s innate biological status as male or female, determined by one pair of sex chromosomes (XX or XY). These chromosomes then influence hormonal differences in hormones and anatomy, such as reproductive organs, body shape, hair growth.
• sex and gender - gender

  the social and psychological status of males and females including attitudes, behaviour and social role associated with being masculine and feminine (social construct based on societies interpretation of how males + females should act). Heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations. Gender is fluid – open to change, partly determined by nature. Social construct, not biological fact.
• sex and gender - gender dysphoria

  when an individual's prescribed sex does not reflect the way that they feel inside, and with the gender they identify themselves as being. Some of those who experience this may choose to have gender reassignment surgery, in order to bring their sexual identity in line with their gender identity. 
• sex and gender - sex role stereotypes

  a set of shared beliefs about what is expected/usual behaviour for men and women in a given society/social group. May be reinforced by parents, peers, the media, institutions like school. Stereotypes are not always true. Can have negative impacts (discrimination). 
• sex and gender - William & Best 


  • aim = to investigate sex stereotyping across 30 different countries
  • method = participants were given of 300 characteristics and asked to state whether the characteristics were more likely to be associated with females, males or both sexes
  • results = across the 30 countries the same characteristics tended to be associated with males and females - females were described as understanding, emotional and warm
• sex and gender - sex role stereotypes - strength

  scientific - used high tech diffusion MRI imaging to map connections between different parts of brain - shows research is scientific as it uses the empirical method because we can use the brain through direct sensory experience - therefore the conclusion that females are better at multi-tasking is not biased - is objective
• sex and gender - sex role sterotypes

  Mahura (2014) scanned the brains of 949 young men and women using MRI imaging - they mapped connections between different parts of the brain - discovered women have far better connections between left and right sides of the brain while mens brains display more intense activity within the brains individual parts - women better at multi-tasking - men at singular tasks
• sex and gender - William & Best - limitation

  lacks temporal validity - was conducted in 1994 - cannot generalise stereotyped behaviours from then to now
• androgyny

  displaying a balance of masculine and feminnne characteristics in one’s personality.

  • To be androgynous is to have the appearance of someone who cannot be clearly identified as a man or woman – this ‘look’ is seen as an asset in the music/fashion industry
  • Sandra bern suggested high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being, as individuals who are (psychologically) both masculine and feminine are better equipped to adapt to a larger range of situations
• measuring androgyny - the bern sex role inventory (BSRI)

   Scale presents 20 characteristics that would be commonly identified as masculine (leader, aggressive, forceful, athletic, dominant)

  20 neutral characteristics (friendly, happy, helpful, moody, jealous)

  20 feminine characteristics (affectionate, gentle, gullible, loves children, tender)

  Respondents rate themselves on a seven-point rating scale: 1 = never true, 7 = always true of me 

  Scores are then classified on the basis of two dimensions: 1) masculinity-femininity 2) androgynous-undifferentiated 
• BSRI scores 


  scoring:

  
• androgyny - strength

  quantitative approach - Bern’s numerical approach is useful for research purposes when it is necessary. However, Janet Spence argues there is more to gender than a set of behaviours typical of one gender or the other, so qualitative methods offer a better way of analysing gender. One compromise is to combine different scales - the Personal Attribute Questionnaire (PAQ) adds another dimension to Bern’s masculinity-femininity dimension - suggests that both quantitative together with qualitative approaches may be useful for studying different aspects of androgyny.
• androgyny - strength

  valid and reliable at time it was developed - scale developed by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness.’ - traits scored highest in each category became 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the scale - BSRI then piloted with 1000 students and results corresponded with participants’ own description of their gender identity - validity. A follow-up study involving a smaller sample of the same students produced similar scores when the students were tested a month later, demonstrating test-retest reliability
• androgyny - limitation

  low external validity. BSRI developed over 40 years ago and behaviours that are regarded as ‘typical’ and ‘acceptable’ in relation to gender have changed. Bern’s scale is made up of stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity that may be outdated - the scale was devised using people all from the United States. Notions of maleness and femaleness in this country may not be shared across all cultures and societies. Suggesting the BSRI lacks temporal validity and generalisability, and not be a suitable measure of gender identity today
• androgyny - limitation

  people may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity or androgyny. Asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on people having an understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not necessarily have. Gender is a social construct which may be more open to interpretation than, say, sex (biological fact). Furthermore, the questionnaire’s scoring system is subjective and people’s application of the 7-point may differ. Suggesting BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing masculinity, femininity or androgyny.
• androgyny - limitation

  self-report. Demand characteristics. Social desirability bias. 
• role of chromosomes and hormones -chromosomes

  • found in nucleus of living cells and carry information in the form of genes - Genes are short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of living organisms 
  • 46 chromosomes in the body, arranged in 23 pairs - 23rd pair determines our biological sex (Females = XX  Males = XY)
  • All egg cells carry X chromosome, sperm cells carry X or Y chromosome – babies’ sex is determined by the sperm
  • Y chromosome carries gene called the ‘sex-determining region Y – this gene causes testes to develop in XY embryo
• role of chromosomes and hormones - hormones

  • a biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Effects= powerful.
  • Most gender development caused through influence of hormones. 
  • Womb - hormones act upon brain development and cause -development of reproductive organs 
  • Puberty/adolescence – burst of hormones – triggers development of secondary sexual characteristic, e.g. pubic hair
• hormones - testosterone

  Controls development of male sex organs during the foetal development - if testosterone not developed, then no male sex organs appear 

  • High levels of testosterone linked to aggression, which is typically masculine because it is adaptive, this would allow males to compete for the opportunity to mate with females
• hormones - oestrogen

  Determines females’ sexual characteristics and menstruation

  • Causes women to experience heightened emotions and can be irritable during their cycle, premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
• hormones - oxytocin

  • Women produce a larger amount than men (sometimes due to result of giving birth)
  • Stimulates lactation – mother can breastfeed 
  • Reduces stress hormone (cortisol)
  • Facilitates bonding 
  • Released in massive amounts during labour + after childbirth 
  • Both sexes produce equal amounts during amorous activities, such as kissing + sexual intercourse 
• role of chromosomes and hormones - strength

  research support. Male hypogonadism is a condition where male's testes fail to produce typical levels of testosterone. Wang gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days. Changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido were monitored - testosterone replacement improved sexual function, libido and mood + significant increase in muscle strength - shows testosterone exerts powerful influence on male sexual arousal and physical development in adulthood - supports idea that hormones influence gender related behaviours
• role of chromosomes and hormones - limitation

  role of oestrogen has been criticised - effects of oestrogen on a female's mood have been questioned heavily. Rodin claims, rather than a biological ‘fact’, PMS is a social construction. The overemphasis of oestrogen/general categorisation of female behaviours being due to PMS can impact women’s lives negatively as they are more likely to be discriminated against and negatively stereotyped - questions whether the benefit of conducting research into the role of hormones outweighs the ‘cost’ of the negative implications it produces.
• role of chromosomes and hormones - limitation

  reductionist. Smith & Lloyd found that when 4-6 month old babies were dressed in masculine clothes, they were given hammer shaped rattles and encouraged to be adventurous. When dressed in feminine clothing were handed cuddly dolls, told they're pretty and reinforced for being passive. - is a reductionist approach as suggests only hormones and chromosomes responsible for gender-related behaviour, thus a simplified explanation - this explanation fails to consider the influence of environmental and cognitive factors 
• atypical sex chromosome patterns

  Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms 
• atypical sex chromosomes patterns - Klinefelters syndrome

  affecting males, have an additional X chromosome (XXY). Anatomical appearance of a male. 10% prenatal diagnosis, 2/3 who have this disease are not aware, often accidentally discovered via medical examination for other conditions. 
• klinefleters syndrome - physical characteristics

  reduced body hair, some breast development at puberty, rounding of body contours, long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, clumsiness, susceptible to health problems that are usually more commonly found in females (e.g. breast cancer)
• klinefelters syndome - physical characteristics

  poorly developed language skills + reading ability. Passive, shy, lack interest in sexual activity, don’t respond well to stressful situations, problems with memory + problem-solving
• atypical sex chromosome patterns - turners syndrome

  affecting females, absence of an X chromosome (XO).
• turners syndrome - physical characteristics

  don’t have a menstrual cycle. Ovaries don’t develop = infertile. Don’t develop breasts at puberty – broad chest. Low set ears, webbed neck. waist much bigger than hip. Retain the appearance of prepubescent girls.
• turners syndrome - psychological characteristics

  higher-than-average reading ability. Performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is often lower than average. Socially immature, difficulty fitting in. 
• atypical sex chromosome patterns - strength

  practical applications to manage condition - research into atypical sex chromosome patterns likely to lead to earlier + more accurate diagnosis of KS and TS as well as more positive outcomes for individuals in future. A study of 87 individuals with KS showed that those who had been identified and treated from a young age experienced significant benefits in managing their condition compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood - Herlihy. This suggests that an increased awareness of these conditions does have a useful real world application.
• atypical sex chromosome patterns - strength

  contributes to nature/nurture debate - comparing people who have these syndromes with chromosome-typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups - might be logically inferred that these differences are a direct result of the abnormal chromosome structure. Supports the nature debate because the fact we see differences in gender behaviour is due to the difference in chromosome pattern. This demonstrates the usefulness of this research in enhancing our understanding of gender behaviour.
• atypical sex chromosome patterns - limitation

  issues drawing this conclusion. Atypical chromosome patterns and gender behaviours are not causal - link between the two could be explained by third variables such as environmental + social. shows it could be wrong to assume gender behaviours are caused by biological factors such as chromosome patterns - those who look different due to the atypical chromosome pattern may be treated differently because of the way they look - complicates our understanding of the influence of atypical chromosome patterns on gender related behaviour.
• cognitive explanations - kohlbergs theory

  • Kohlberg’s cognitive-development theory of gender is based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age - Comes as result of biological maturation (brain matures with thinking).
  • Gender development is thought to progress through 3 stages – gradual changes through the stage
• kohlbergs theory - stage 1 - gender identity 


  At 2. Kohlberg states children are able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or girl (gender identity). At 3 children can label pictures of men and women and can recognise which ones are the same gender as them. Not aware that gender is fixed
• kohlbergs theory - stage 2 - gender stability 


  age 4. Understand that they will stay the same gender but cannot apply this logic to other people. Confused with external changes in appearance – believe that people change gender if they engage in activities that are more associated with a different gender
• kohlbergs theory - stage 3 - gender constancy 


  age 6 – children recognise that gender remains constant across time + situations, for others as well as themselves – no longer fooled by external changes in appearance (although may regard man wearing dress as unusual). Children seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with + imitate. Once a child has fully developed/internalised at the gender constancy stage, they look for evidence which confirms this concept. Tendency towards gender stereotyping here.
• kohlbergs theory - strength

  research support. Damon told children a story about George, a boy who played with dolls - asked to comment on story. 4 yr olds said was fine for George to play with dolls - 6 year olds thought it was wrong - 6 year olds had gone from understanding what boys/girls do to developing rules about what is and is not acceptable behaviour - supports idea that children in gender constancy stage hold rigid stereotypes about gender related behaviour +Munroe found cross-cultural evidence for Kohlberg’s stages - external validity - universal explanation of gender.
• kohlbergs theory - limitation

  research to contradict. Bussey & Bandura found children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys and ‘felt bad’ about playing with and about doing the opposite. Gender constancy is happening earlier than age 6. As children are actively searching for an absorbing gender appropriate behaviours before the age of 6. This inconsistency in research limits the reliability of the theory.