1C

• risk - probability that an event will take place
• risk factors - factors that affect the risk of an event happening
• multifactorial disease - a disease which results from the interactions of many different factors, not just one simple cause
• epidemiology - study of patterns of health and disease, to identify causes of different conditions and patterns of infection
• correlation - strong tendency for 2 sets of data to change togetheer
• causation - when a factor directly causes a special effect
• longitudinal studies - scientific studies which follow the same group of people over many years
• metadata analysis - when data from all available studies in a particular area are analysed
• valid - an investigation which is well designed to answer the question
• precise - measurements with only slight variation between them
• reliable - evidence which can be repeated by different scientists
• biased - when someone is unfairly for or against an idea
• evaluate - to assess the quality of a study and the significance of the results
• non modifiable risk factors (CVD):

  1. genes - there are genetics tendencies in families or ethnic groups that lead to CVD e.g. easily damaged arteries, hypertension, issues with cholesterol balance
  2. age - blood vessels lose elasticity and narrow over time
  3. sex - men under 50 are more likely to get CVDs than women under 50, because oestrogen reduces the build up of plaque
• modifiable risk factors (CVD):

  4. smoking - substances in tobacco can damage artery lining making plaque formation more likely, and arteries narrow so blood pressure increases

  5. inactivity - regular exercise lowers blood pressure, prevents obesity and diabetes, and lowers blood cholesterol

  6. hypertension - damages endothelium lining, causes are smoking, obesity, inactivity, high salt in diet, stress

  7. diet and obesity - causes high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes which damages endothelium
• Excess food energy is converted into fat stores which can lead to obesity. This can increase the risk of developing many diseases, including CVDs.
• body mass index = mass (kg)/height^2 (m)
• BMI is inaccurate because it doesn't take people's body composition into account, as it doesn't differentiate between fat and muscle. It also doesn't account for muscle mass lost with age, or differences in ethnic groups.
• Waist to hip ratio is a measure of the waist compared to hips which can be used to identify obesity. However, it doesn't take pregnancy, post-natal bodies, or measurement techniques into account.
• Low density lipoproteins are made from saturated fats and bind to cell membranes. If there are high levels of LDLs, the membranes become saturated, so the LDLs go into the blood, causing cholesterol to increase.
• High density lipoproteins are made from unsaturated fats and they carry cholesterol from body tissues to the liver to be broken down, so they cause blood cholesterol to decrease.
• Antioxidants reduce free radicals, which reduces damage and therefore reduces the risk of atherosclerosis. Although antioxidants and decreased risks are correlated, there is no proof of causation.
• antioxidants - molecules that inhibit the oxidation of other molecules which can lead to chain reactions that may damage cells
• antihypertensives - drug which reduces blood pressure
• diuretics - drugs increase volume of urine produced by the kidneys
• beta blockers - drugs that block the response of the heart to hormones e.g. adrenaline
• sympathetic nerve inhibitors - drugs that keep arteries dilated
• ACE inhibitors - drugs which stop the production of angiotension, a hormone that constricts blood vessels
• statins - drugs that lower the level of cholesterol in the blood
• plant stanols and sterols - compounds that reduce blood cholesterol
• anticoagulants - substance that interferes with the manufacture of prothrombin in the body
• platelet inhibitors - drugs used to prevent blood clots forming by preventing platelets from clumping together