Micropara

• Immunology is the study of the immune system and immune responses
• Antigens are pathogen-specific molecular structures that trigger immune responses and stimulate the production of antibodies
• Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are produced by the body in response to antigens
• The immune system consists of networks of cells, tissues, and organs that serve as the body's defense system against infectious organisms and other invaders
• Divisions of immunity include:

  • Inflammation
  • Antibody-mediated immunity
  • Cell-mediated immunity
• Types of immunity:

  1. Innate immunity:

  • Defenses present at birth, including physical barriers, mechanical defenses, chemical defenses, and cellular defenses
• Macrophages are a type of immune cell with different types located in various parts of the body, such as alveolar macrophages in the lung alveoli and Kupffer cells in the liver
• Adaptive immunity, also known as active immunity, involves the development of immunity
• Passive immunity is borrowed from another source and lasts for a short period of time
• Two major arms of the adaptive immune system are:

  • Humoral immunity (antibody-mediated immunity)
  • Cell-mediated immunity
• Immunoglobulins:

  • IgA: Found in mucous, saliva, tears, and breastmilk, protects against pathogens
  • IgD: Part of the B cell receptor, helps start the immune response
  • IgE: Protects against parasitic worms, responsible for allergic reactions
  • IgG: Secreted by plasma cells in the blood, can cross the placenta into the fetus
  • IgM: Attached to the surface of a B cell or secreted into the blood, responsible for early stages of immunity
• White blood cells (leukocytes) circulate in the body in blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, with two main types being phagocytes and lymphocytes
• The role of B lymphocytes is to act as body markers, while T lymphocytes include helper T cells that coordinate immune responses and killer T cells that directly attack and kill other cells
• Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens are transmembrane glycoproteins that play a role in immune recognition
• Types of acquired immunity include active acquired immunity (naturally and artificially) and passive acquired immunity (natural and artificial)
• Fever or pyrexia can be caused by various microorganisms and substances known as pyrogens
• Vaccines are materials that can artificially induce immunity to an infectious disease, with different types including attenuated, inactivated, subunit, conjugate, toxoid, DNA, and autogenous vaccines
• Ideal vaccines should protect individuals from infection, contain antigenic determinants from all strains of the pathogen, have few to no side effects, and not cause disease in the vaccinated person
• Loss is an actual or potential situation in which something that is valued is changed or no longer available
• People can experience loss of body image, a loved one, well-being, a job, personal possessions, or beliefs
• Death is a loss for both the dying person and those who survive
• Grief is the total response to the emotional experience related to loss
• Bereavement is the subjective response experienced by the surviving loved ones
• Mourning is the behavioral process through which grief is eventually resolved or altered
• Autopsy/Post Mortem Examination: examination of the body after death
• DNR (Do Not Resuscitate): written when the client or proxy has expressed the wish for no resuscitation in the event of a respiratory or cardiac arrest
• Euthanasia: act of painlessly putting to death persons suffering from incurable or distressing disease
• Post Mortem Care: care of the body after death, aimed to provide dignity to the dead and sensitivity to the personal, religious, and cultural needs of the family
• Hospice Care focuses on support and care of the dying person's family, with the goal of facilitating a peaceful and dignified death
• Palliative Care focuses on symptom care of clients whom disease no longer responds to cure-focused treatment
• Physiologic Needs of a Dying Person include personal hygiene measures, controlling pain, and providing measures related to sensory changes
• Rigor Mortis (Post Mortem Rigidity) is the stiffening of the body that occurs about 2 to 4 hours after death due to lack of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• Post Mortem Care:

  • Autolysis (ATP) is not synthesized due to lack of glycogen in the body
  • Autolysis starts in involuntary muscles (heart, bladder, etc.) and progresses to the head, neck, trunk, and extremities
  • Autolysis leaves the body about 96 hours after death
• Algor Mortis (Post Mortem Cooling):

  • Gradual decrease of the body's temperature after death
  • Body temperature falls about 1 degree Celsius per hour until it reaches room temperature
• Livor Mortis (Post Mortem Lividity):

  • Bluish discoloration of the skin after death
  • Skin becomes discolored after blood circulation has ceased
  • RBC breakdown releases hemoglobin, which discolours surrounding tissues
• Putrefaction:

  • Destruction of a dead body by bacteria
  • Rate of changes depends on the environment
  • Hot, moist conditions favor putrefaction, while cold, dry air delays or prevents it
  • Deceased body should be placed in refrigeration in the morgue as soon as possible
• Embalming:

  • Used to chemically preserve the body
  • Solution introduced kills bacteria and prevents rapid decomposition of tissues
  • Tissues become soft and eventually liquefied by bacterial fermentation
  • Bodies are often stored in cool places to delay the process
• Purpose of Post Mortem Care:

  • Aid in preserving the physical appearance of the deceased
  • Prevent discoloration and damage of the corpse skin
  • Safeguard belongings of the deceased
  • Support family members during initial hours of bereavement
  • Show respect for the deceased
• Signs of Impending Clinical Death:

  • Loss of Muscle Tone
  • Slowing of the Circulation
  • Changes in respiration
  • Sensory Impairment
• Dying Person's Bill of Rights:

  • Right to be treated as a living human being until death
  • Right to express feelings and emotions about approaching death
  • Right to participate in decisions concerning care
  • Right to expect continuing medical and nursing attention
  • Right not to die alone
  • Right to be free from pain
  • Right to have questions answered honestly
  • Right to die in peace and with dignity